General Psychology Final (Rutgers NB 2025)

Psychology

The scientific study of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Correlation

When two variables are related but one does not cause the other

Causation

When one variable directly causes a change in another (requires experiment)

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable the researcher manipulates

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias

Confounding Variable

A hidden variable that may affect results

Correlation Coefficient

A number from -1.0 to +1.0 showing strength and direction of relationship

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases

Strong Correlation

Close to +1 or -1

Descriptive Research

Describes behavior without showing cause (case study, survey, observation)

Correlational Research

Examines relationships but cannot prove cause

Experimental Research

Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect

Replication

Repeating a study to see if results are consistent

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves outside the CNS

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight-or-flight response

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Rest-and-digest response

Neuron

A nerve cell

Dendrites

Receive messages

Axon

Sends messages away from cell body

Myelin Sheath

Speeds neural transmission

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons

Dopamine

Movement and reward

Serotonin

Mood regulation

Acetylcholine

Memory and movement

GABA

Inhibitory/calming neurotransmitter

Glutamate

Learning and memory

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Sleep and movement coordination

Reticular Formation

Alertness and arousal

Thalamus

Sensory relay station

Hypothalamus

Hunger, thirst, temperature; links to endocrine system

Hippocampus

Forms new memories

Amygdala

Emotion, fear, aggression

Frontal Lobe

Planning, judgment, impulse control

Parietal Lobe

Touch and spatial awareness

Occipital Lobe

Vision

Temporal Lobe

Hearing and language

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination

REM Sleep

Dreaming sleep; brain active, body paralyzed

NREM-1

Light sleep with hypnagogic jerks

NREM-2

Sleep spindles

NREM-3

Deep sleep and growth hormone release

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something good to increase behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something bad to increase behavior

Positive Punishment

Adding something bad to decrease behavior

Negative Punishment

Removing something good to decrease behavior

Variable Ratio Schedule

Unpredictable rewards; most resistant to extinction

Shaping

Reinforcing steps toward a behavior

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others

Latent Learning

Learning without reinforcement

Taste Aversion

Strong association between taste and sickness

Sensory Memory

Brief memory lasting seconds

Short-Term Memory

Holds about 7 items for ~20 seconds

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage

Semantic Memory

Facts and knowledge

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences

Implicit Memory

Skills and habits

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of old memories

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Spacing Effect

Studying over time improves memory

Testing Effect

Retrieval practice improves learning

Sensation

Detecting physical stimuli

Perception

Interpreting sensory information

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus detected 50% of the time

Difference Threshold

Smallest noticeable change

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity after constant exposure

Top-Down Processing

Using expectations to interpret info

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from sensory data

Gestalt Principles

Rules for organizing visual info

Transduction

Converting energy into neural signals

Sensorimotor Stage

Object permanence develops

Preoperational Stage

Egocentrism; lack of conservation

Concrete Operational Stage

Logical thinking

Formal Operational Stage

Abstract reasoning

Assimilation

Fitting new info into existing schemas

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new info

Trust vs Mistrust

Secure attachment

Identity vs Role Confusion

Developing a sense of self

Secure Attachment

Comforted when caregiver returns

Authoritative Parenting

Warm with firm rules

Authoritarian Parenting

Strict with little warmth

Id

Pleasure principle

Ego

Reality principle

Superego

Morality and conscience

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious ways to reduce anxiety

Denial

Refusing to accept reality

Projection

Attributing feelings to others

Displacement

Redirecting emotions

Regression

Reverting to immature behavior

Rationalization

Justifying behavior with excuses

Oral Fixation

Smoking, overeating, dependency

Anal-Retentive

Neat, controlling

Anal-Expulsive

Messy, careless