School Psychology Praxis Exam

Sensorimotor Stage

Age: Birth to ~2 years; Learning through senses and movement; Develops object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight); Beginning of goal-directed actions.

Preoperational Stage

Age: ~2 to 7 years; Symbolic thinking develops (e.g., pretend play, drawing, language); Thinking is egocentric (difficulty seeing others' perspectives); Struggles with logic and understanding conservation (e.g., amount of liquid stays the same in different shaped containers).

Concrete Operational Stage

Age: ~7 to 11 years; Begins logical thinking about concrete events; Understands conservation, classification, seriation (ordering objects); Less egocentric—can see others' perspectives; Struggles with abstract thinking.

Formal Operational Stage

Age: ~12 and up (adolescence into adulthood); Can think abstractly and hypothetically; Engages in deductive reasoning; Able to plan ahead, think about moral and philosophical issues.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Age: Birth to 18 months; Key Question: Can I trust the world? Success: Trust in caregivers and environment; Failure: Fear, suspicion, and mistrust of others.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Age: 18 months to 3 years; Key Question: Can I do things myself or must I rely on others? Success: Sense of independence and confidence; Failure: Shame and doubt in one's abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Age: 3 to 5 years (Preschool); Key Question: Is it okay for me to do things, make decisions, and explore? Success: Initiative, leadership, and goal-setting; Failure: Guilt, fear of trying new things.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Age: 6 to 12 years (Elementary school); Key Question: Can I succeed at tasks and work with others? Success: Confidence, competence, pride in accomplishments; Failure: Feelings of inferiority and failure.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Age: 12 to 18 years (Adolescence); Key Question: Who am I? What is my place in the world?

Success

Strong sense of identity and direction

Failure

Confusion about self, roles, and future

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development - Preconventional

Behavior is based on the desire to avoid punishment and gain rewards

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development - Conventional

Behavior is designed to acquire the approval of others and to maintain social relations

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development - Postconventional

Judgments about right and wrong are logical and behavior is controlled by internalized ethical code independent of the approval or disapproval of others

IDEA

Free and appropriate education to all children with disabilities as defined by the law

FERPA

Schools must follow student record procedures to receive federal funds; ensures confidentiality and parent access to records

ADA

Guarantees equal opportunity in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services

Civil Rights Act

Any person whose constitutional rights have been violated by a government, school official may sue for damages in federal court, and the official may be held liable for damages

FAPE

Free and appropriate education

Zero-Reject Principle

Requires states to locate and evaluate students with disabilities and offer them full educational opportunity, regardless of the severity of the disability

Child Find

Requires the SEA to actively identify, locate, and evaluate students with disabilities, including those who are homeless, wards of the state, or in private schools

Equal Protection Clause

No state shall 'deny any persons within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws'

Due Process

No state shall 'deprive any persons of life, liberty, or property, without due process of the laws'

Substantive Due Process

School rules restricting student rights must be reasonable related to the purpose of schooling

Procedural Due Process

Stay put is after the due process hearing and before it is resolved

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Struck down state laws allowing separate public schools for Black and white students; overturned the 'separate but equal' doctrine

Board of Education v. Rowley (1982)

Established the 'meaningful benefit' standard under IDEA; schools must provide some educational benefit, not maximize potential

Diana v. State Board of Education (1970)

Challenged using IQ tests alone for special education eligibility; ruling required multiple assessment tools

PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972)

Ruled that children with intellectual disabilities have a right to free and appropriate public education

Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v Rowley (1982)

Parents of a deaf student sued school district for not providing a sign language interpreter

Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972)

Ruled that children with intellectual disabilities have a right to free and appropriate public education.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975)

Laid the foundation for the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Mandated special education services for students with disabilities.

Larry P. v. Riles

Banned IQ testing of African-American students in certain contexts to prevent racial bias in special education evaluations.

Disproportionate placement in EMR classes

25% of EMR students were African American, despite being only 10% of the population.

Hobson v. Hanson

Schools must provide equal education opportunities despite socioeconomic status (SES).

PASE V. Hannon

Endorsed the use of standardized tests as long as the tests are not culturally biased and are used with several other measures.

Marshall v. Georgia

The percentage of minorities placed in special education can exceed the percentage in the representative population as long as proper steps for placement were followed.

Honing v. Doe

Special education students must have a manifestation hearing to review placement if they are suspended for more than 10 days.

Oberti v. Cementon

Affirmed the rights of a special needs student to be included in regular education classes and activities.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Schools must adhere to the IDEA requirements especially those related to an LRE.

Tatro v. Irving Independent School District

Schools must provide medical services that do not require a medical doctor to perform, even if the child needs full-time attention from a nurse.

Tarasoff

Duty to warn and protect.

Accommodations for ESL students

Schools must provide accommodations for ESL students.

Four Broad Ethical Principles

Respect for the Dignity of Persons, Professional Competence and Responsibility, Honesty and Integrity in Professional Relationships, Responsibility to Schools, Families, Communities, the Profession, and Society.

8 Step Decision Making Model

1. Describe the problem situation 2. Define the potential ethical-legal issues involved 3. Consult available ethical and legal guidelines 4. Consider all factors pertinent to the situation 5. Confer with supervisors and colleagues 6. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and welfare of all affected parties 7. Consider alternative solutions and likely consequences of each 8. Select a course of action and assume responsibility for the decision.

Domain 1: Data- Based Decision Making

Collection of formal and informal information.

Level 1: Background data collection

Techniques and problem identification including student files and records, staff interviews and comments about the student, medical records and reports, review of previous interventions, and developmental history.

Level 2: Assessment and Problem Analysis

Universal screening (CBM, CogAT, STEEP) and progress monitoring and RTI level.

Level 3: Assessment of Special Population

Includes cognitive, achievement, SLP, motor skills, adaptive skills, social/emotional and behavioral functioning, sensory processing.

Cognitive Assessments

WISC-V, DAS-II, Stanford-Binet fifth edition, WPPSI-IV, Woodcock Johnson, KABC-II, UNIT, CAS-2.

Achievement Assessments

Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement-IV, WRAT-4, K-TEA, WIAT.

Executive Functioning and Attention Assessments

BRIEF-2, CAS-2, NEPSY-II, CEFI (after age 8).

Phonemic Awareness Tests

CTOPP, Nonword Spelling, Test of Phonological Awareness- Kindergarten, DAS-II Phonological Processing Domain, DIBELS.

Special Education Eligibility Determination

A process to determine if a student qualifies for special education services.

Structured Interview

A more standardized and formal interview where the same questions are given to each child.

Advantages of Structured Interview

High validity and reliability, responses can be directly compared with other children's responses, indicating the presence or absence of a problem.

Limitations of Structured Interview

Unable to modify questions to needs of the interviewee, interview follows strict format and administration.

Unstructured Interview

Based on assumption that conversational style helps put the student at ease and will share more.

Advantages of Unstructured Interview

Can be adapted to needs of interviewee.

Limitations of Unstructured Interview

Responses can be difficult to interpret, responses cannot be compared with norms.

Semi-Structured Interview

Combines best features of structured and unstructured, allow for flexibility and follow-up.

Whole-Interval Recording

Behavior is only recorded when it occurs during the entire time interval; good for continuous behaviors or behaviors occurring in short duration.

Frequency or Event Recording

Record the number of behaviors that occurred during a specific period.

Duration Recording

Refers to the length of time the behavior lasts.

Latency Recording

Time between onset of stimulus or signal that initiates the behavior.

Time-Sampling Interval Recording

Select a time period for observation, divide the period into equal intervals, and record whether or not the behavior occurs.

Partial-Interval Recording

Behavior is scored if it occurs during any part of the time interval; multiple episodes of behavior in a single time interval are counted as one score or mark.

Momentary Time Sampling

Behavior is scored as present or absent only during the moment that a timed interval begins.

Steps for Functional Behavioral Assessment

Describe the problem behavior, perform the assessment, review of records, observations, interviews of student, parent, and teacher, evaluate assessment results, examine patterns of behavior and determine the purpose of function of the target behavior, develop a hypothesis, formulate an intervention plan, start or implement the intervention, evaluate effectiveness of intervention plan.

Common Standardized Measures

BASC-3, Child Behavior Checklist, Conners, Beck Depression Inventory, ABC data.

Consultee-Centered Model

Improves and enhances competence and skills of the consultee, indirectly helps the client by building the skills of the consultee.

Client-Centered Model

Focuses on the student; consultant directly helps the client.

Behavioral Model

Solution focused; collects data to affect behavior change in a person.

RTI Tier 1

Primary Prevention; universal level, involved application of universal interventions like Positive Behavior Support (PBS).

RTI Tier 2

Strategic Interventions; more targeted in scope than the universal level, but less targeted than intensive level.

RTI Tier 3

Involves direct contact with the student who is having emotional or behavioral difficulties; sometimes small groups are identified where a student can receive a higher level of support or intervention.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis; developed psychosexual stages and concepts like the id, ego, and superego.

Jean Piaget

Known for cognitive development theory; proposed four stages of cognitive growth in children.

Erik Erikson

Developed psychosocial stages of development; focused on identity and social relationships across the lifespan.

Lev Vygotsky

Created the sociocultural theory of development; emphasized the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding.

B.F. Skinner

Leading figure in behaviorism; developed theories of operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment).

John Watson

Early behaviorist famous for the Little Albert experiment on classical conditioning.

Albert Bandura

Developed social learning theory (now social cognitive theory) and introduced observational learning and self-efficacy.

Abraham Maslow

Known for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, focused on self-actualization and human motivation.

Carl Rogers

Key figure in humanistic psychology, developed client-centered therapy and emphasized unconditional positive regard.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Known for stages of moral development, expanded on Piaget's work to explain moral reasoning.

Lightner Witmer

Father of school psychology.

Arnold Gesell

First school psychologist.

Validity

The degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure.

Criterion-related validity

Correlation between two measures (tests) that are designed to measure human traits.

Face and content validity

How rational and reasonable the test and items look.

Convergent validity

Determined when a test is correlated with another test that has a similar purpose and measures the same trait.

Divergent validity

Established by correlating two tests that measure two different traits.

Construct-related validity

Refers to whether a trait or construct is being measured.

Predictive validity

Valid test should have high predictive value; for example, a valid test of cognitive ability should be able to predict achievement in school.

Discriminant validity

Valid test should be able to discriminate between students who have the trait being measured and students who do not.

Reliability

Standardized test results and scores that are consistent and stable across time.

Test-retest reliability

Testing a person with the same test twice; scores should be similar if the test is reliable.

Excellent Reliability

0.90 and above.