NCEA Level 3 Biology, Plant and Animal Responses

Ultimate Goal in Biology

Sex so that genes can be passed on, the most successful genes increase in frequency in the gene pool

Agnostic Behaviour

Posturing, growling, showing teeth, trials of strength which reduces intraspecific aggression by sorting disputes before physical fighting occurs

Niche

It is the combination of the tolerance range to the suite of environmental factors that determines where an organism lives

Group Formation

When animals of the same species live part or all of their lives in co-operative group

Exception to Group Formation

Low ranking may have lower natality which is a disadvantage but overall survival still increased by association

Group Formation Costs

Increased intra-specific competition, increased chance of the spread of disease, access to mates can be restricted if you are low ranking and young may be killed if change in alpha occurs

Group Formation Key Point

Everyone in the group must benefit in some way for the behaviour to occur otherwise it would not be an adaptive advantage, which is passed on in genes

Altruism

When an individual does something that will benefit another individual or group even though they themselves will not get an immediate benefit in return.

Kin Selection

Altruism towards relative (kin) that still results in survival of genes

Open Group Membership

Temporary membership, individuals may enter or leave at will

Closed Group Membership

Membership stable enough for each member to recognise other members and results in social hierarchy

Hierarchies

A group with an organised social structure that enables individuals to better allocate energy

Hierarchal Rank

Determines order of access to resources within the groups, which reduces direct aggression

Linear Hierarchy

No equals, every individual above or below another. Alpha dominates all others, beta dominates all but alpha

Complex Hierarchy

Involve coalitions and alliances, subordinate groups. Alpha male in charge, helped by beta to control group. All ranks except alpha are changeable depending on the situation

Requirements for Existence of Hierarchy

All members of the group must benefit from its existence and all group members must be able to recognise each other

Establishing Dominance

Strength, size, aggression, age, experience and kin alliances

Features of Complex Hierarchies

Still a function of dominance ranking but more complex and readily changeable. This makes it difficult to predict outcomes

Alpha

Makes all decisions, main protector and breeder

Sentinel

Lower-ranking males acting as lookout, back up protection and often don't breed

Subordinate Group

Lower-ranking males obtain more mating opportunities by forming coalitions with other males that succeed in dislodging high ranking males from their consortships

Hierarchy Benefits

Reduces aggression within group, dominant males mate ensuring more 'fit' offspring are produced to strengthen group gene pool

Mating Systems

A framework of social relationships within which individuals within a species compete for mates, classified according to degree of pair bonding and parental care

Females

Eggs are large and energy expensive to produce, in females best interest to ensure 'best' sperm fertilises her eggs

Males

Can produce large amounts of sperm for small amount of energy, often in males best interest to fertilise as many eggs as possible leading to competition for mates

Sexual Dimorphism

Males differ significantly from females

Monogamy

1 female : 1 male. Pair bonds form, both usually raise young

Polyandry

1 female : many males. Each male cares for young, increased genetic variability increases survival of young

Polygyny

1 male competes for many females. Evolution selects for showier males, males don't tend to raise young, females tend to control mate choice

Polygynandry

Both male and female mate with more than one partner. Group brings up young, males help incubate eggs, those that don't breed raise young

Synchronised Spawning

Males and females release gametes simultaneously, often in response to environmental cues. Adults typically don't rear young

Mating Systems Summary

All breeding systems are successful, existence depends on condition the behaviour evolved in, and must be beneficial to overall survival of offspring for behaviour to continue

Courtship

Purpose is to attract a mate and confirm they are the correct species for the purpose of reproduction

Courtship Strategies

Are species specific, both fighting and display

Courtship Uses

To test the fitness of potential mates, attract a mate to a nest, may result in pair bonding, and in some animals, they ensure a synchronised state of readiness

Pair Bond

Stable relationship between members of the opposite sex

Courtship Benefits

Better adapted males will have higher natality, ensures the best genes are provided for females offspring, the best-adapted males and females produce more offspring, thus the gene pool is better adapted

Parental Care

Strategies that differentially allocate resources (reproductive effort), a trade-off between the number of offspring and amount of parental care

R-selected

Energy put into production of large quantity of eggs/young (increase chance one or two will survive to reproduce)

K-selected

Energy put into producing few, well-prepared individuals with a high chance of survival

R-selected Costs

Large amount of energy required to produce offspring, high offspring fatality, possible parental death, if no offspring survive the genes are not passed on

R-selected Benefits

No energy wasted looking after young, most fit offspring survive, no risk to parents, early hatchlings have a food source (other offspring), safety in numbers

K-selected Costs

Large amount of energy into feeding and protecting, huge waste of energy if offspring die by chance, have to share resources

Territory

Is a defined area occupied by an animal that contains limited resources and is actively defended (not resource itself generally)

Home Range

Surround territory and is roamed/resources used and shared with others but is not actively defended

Holding Territory

Keep out signal (agnostic), ritualised aggression (some form of threat), actual fighting (generally try to prevent to maintain energy)

Size of Territory

Related to resource allocation, it must be more beneficial to spend time and energy defending rather than feeding or mating

Territory Benefits

Ultimately related to natality, prevents over-exploitation of environment, the combination of benefits decrease the energy used for living and therefore can be put into reproduction and ensuring survival of offspring

Territory Costs

Energy used to defend, risk of injury, and time taken from feeding and breeding

Leks

During the breeding season, some species occupy small territories used solely for courtship display

Mutualism

Both species benefit from the association (+,+)

Commensalism

One species benefits while the other species is itself not affected (0,+)

Amensalism

One species is harmed while the other species is not itself affected (-,0)

Exploitation

One species benefits at the expense of the other species (-,+)

Antibiosis

One species produces a compound that inhibits the other species. The compound producing species is unaffected or may benefit (+/0,-)

Competition

Both species are harmed from the association, usually for a limited resource (-,-)

Symbiosis

Umbrella term for close inter-relationships including mutualism, exploitation, parasitism, predation and commensalism

Parasitism

Involves one species (the parasite) gaining nutrient and usually shelter off the other species (host) (+,-)

Predation

An inter-relationship whereby one species is eaten (harmed) by another species which benefits from the relationship

Herbivory

Animal eating plant material

Predator

The animal that hunts and eats prey

Prey

Animal that is usually harmed in the relationship

Mullerian Mimicry

Both species share the same warning

Predator-Prey Switching

As one prey species becomes scarce, predation on other species increases

Plants compete for:

Light, water, minerals, carbon dioxide, pollinators and space

Animals compete for:

Food, space, nesting sites and territories

Astronomical Cycles

The environment displays regular cycles based on the movement of the Earth and the Moon

Tidal or Circatidal

High and low tides, 12.4 hours

Daily or Circadian

Solar day (light/dark), 24 hours

Semilunar or Circasemilunar

Spring tides, 15 days

Annual or Circannual

Solar year, 365.25 days

Exogenous Rhythm

Rhythm is kept in time with the external/environmental rhythm

Diurnal

Active period during the day

Nocturnal

Active period during the night/when light is absent

Crepuscular

Active period at the change of light

Out of Sync

Due to no external rhythm

Free Running Period

The period over which the endogenous rhythm continues in the absence of exogenous/environmental cues

Entrainment

The process of regularly resetting the internal biological clock to fit the external environmental rhythms

Zeitgeber

The external environmental cue by which the internal clock is reset

Phase Shift

When the onset of the period of the rhythm is changed (either earlier or later)

Biological Clock

An innate mechanism of the body that regulates its rhythmic and periodic cycles, it is made up of a small collection of suprachiasmatic nucleus cells in the hypothalamus in mammals

Biological Clock Benefits

Allows organism to anticipate onset of favourable or unfavourable conditions, synchronisation of social activities and physiological processes

Actogram

Activity patterns of organisms are recorded and displayed

Calculate Free Running Period

First work out the difference in start time (convert to minutes) by final start time subtract initial start time. Work out change in start time by dividing start time difference by the days of FRP used

Taxes

A taxis is a directional movement of entire animal or cell to a directional stimulus (positive = towards stimulus, negative = away from stimulus)

Photo

Light

Geo/Gravi

Gravity

Thermo

Temperature

Chemo

Chemical

Thigmo

Touch

Rheo

Current

Klinotaxis

Animal compares the intensity of stimulus over time, not space. Orientation depends on receptors alternately comparing intensity of the stimulus as the body moves side to side

Tropotaxis

Bilateral sense organs are used to determine the stimulus direction, allows for direct movement

Kineses

Non-directional response by an animal or cell to a change in the intensity of an environmental stimulus. Rate tends to increase in unfavourable conditions

Kinesis Rate of Turning

Stimulus intensity determines the rate of turning or reversals

Homing

Innate ability if an animal to return to its home site or locality after being displaced

Migration

Repeated mass movement of organisms resulting in greater survival and reproductive success. Usually from breeding to feeding ground and vice versa

Migration Preparation

Laying down fat layers to endure energy supplies for the journey and moulting feathers and replacing them with new ones to ensure maximum flight efficiency

Migration Benefits

The animals move between areas of abundant food, favourable climate, good habitat and possibly fewer predators. Also, enables avoidance of harsh conditions with lack of food along with favourable conditions for breeding, increasing chances of young surviving

Migration Costs

Distance, requires large amounts of energy, weather conditions on the route may be harsh, navigation failure and increased predation en route