Communication Research

Deductive Research

moves from general theory to specific hypotheses that are empirically tested

Inductive Research

moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theory building

IRB Role

Reviews research protocols and related materials to ensure human subjects’ rights and welfare are protected

Informed Consent

Involves (1) disclosing necessary information, (2) ensuring understanding, and (3) securing voluntary agreement before participation

Respect for Persons

Treat individuals as autonomous agents and provide extra protections for those with diminished autonomy

Beneficence

Obligation to maximize benefits and minimize harm

Justice

Fair distribution of research burdens and benefits across populations

Reliability

Consistency of a measure across time (test-retest), items (internal consistency), or observers (interrater)

Validity

Accuracy with which a measure reflects the construct of interest (including internal, external, construct validity)

Anonymity

No identifiers collected; researcher cannot link data to individuals

Confidentiality

Identifiers may be known but are protected from wider disclosure through data safeguards

Social Desirability Response

Tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner they believe will be viewed favorably by others, leading to over-reporting “good” behavior and under-reporting “bad” behavior

Cross-Sectional Surveys

Single point in time “snapshot”

Longitudinal Surveys

Multiple time points; Includes: Trend, Cohort and panel Surveys

Trend Surveys

Different samples over time

Cohort Surveys

Same subgroup over time

Panel Surveys

Same individuals over multiple waves

Manifest Content

Observable, literal elements in text

Latent Content

Underlying meanings and interpretations beyond surface text

Triangulation

Use of multiple methods, data sources, theories, or investigators to enhance the credibility and validity of findings by cross-verification

Closed-Ended Questions

Fixed response options (e.g., yes/no, Likert scales); easy to code and analyze quantitatively

Open-Ended Questions

Free-text responses; provide depth and insight into respondents’ perspectives

Convenience Sampling

Participants selected by availability.

Quota Sampling

Ensures representation of key subgroups by setting quotas.

Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

Researcher selects based on criteria.

Snowball (Referral) Sampling

Existing participants recruit others.

Self-Selection (Volunteer) Sampling

Individuals opt in on their own

Strengths

Stimulates discussion, elicits group norms and language, uncovers interactions and shared meanings

Limitations

Dominant voices can hijack discussion, groupthink, moderation skill critical, self-selected participants limit generalizability, large volumes of data are challenging to analyze

Definition

Researcher immerses in a social setting to observe behaviors, interactions, and practices firsthand

Strengths

High ecological validity, captures what participants do (not say), provides deep contextual insight and empathy

Limitations

Low replicability and generalizability, potential researcher bias and “going native,” ethical issues with covert observation, heavy reliance on researcher skills

Nominal

You can categorize your data by labelling them in mutually exclusive groups, but there is no order between the categories.

Ordinal

You can categorize and rank your data in an order, but you cannot say anything about the intervals between the rankings.

Interval

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between neighboring data points, but there is no true zero point.

Ratio

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between neighboring data points, and there is a true zero point.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

a theme is a conceptualization of an interaction, a relationship, or an event.

Recurrence

There’s a thread of meaning in the data. It’s not necessary to have the precise words.

Repetition

The explicit repetition of words, phrases, or sentences.

Forcefulness

Think of vocal inflection, volume, or dramatic pauses

PARTICIPANT QUOTES

should illuminate analysis

provide evidence that your analysis is correct.