Cardiology procedures

Systemic circulation is the body system for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart, to the rest of the body.

It begins at the left ventricle, travels through the aorta, and delivers oxygen to tissues while returning deoxygenated blood to the heart via the vena cavae.

The aorta is the artery that carries oxygenated blood out of the heart from the left ventricle.

It is the largest artery in the body, distributing blood to the various parts of the systemic circulation.

Plasma, White Blood cell (WBC), Red Blood Cell (RBC) and Platelets are the components of blood.

These are the four main constituents that make up whole blood, each with specific functions in transport, immunity, oxygen delivery, and clotting.

Saphenous is the longest vein in the human body.

It extends from the foot up to the thigh and groin, collecting superficial blood from the leg and thigh.

Pulmonary Artery is the artery that carries blood from the heart’s right ventricle into the lungs.

It is unique among arteries for carrying deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.

5,000,000 is the number of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) in one cubic millimeter of blood:

The approximate number of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) found in one cubic millimeter (1mm^3) of healthy adult blood, crucial for oxygen transport.

It takes up to 6 weeks for a pint of blood to regenerate in an adult body.

The approximate time required for an adult human body to replenish a pint of blood after donation or loss, primarily through the production of new red blood cells.

The inter ventricular cardiac septum is located on the dividing wall between the right and left side of the heart of the lower chambers.

This muscular wall separates the right and left ventricles, preventing the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood within the heart's lower chambers.

90% is the percentage of water in blood plasma.

Water constitutes about 90% of blood plasma, playing a vital role in transporting blood cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.

Platelet aggregation is best described as the clumping together of platelets in human blood.

This process forms a platelet plug, an essential initial step in hemostasis (stopping bleeding) at the site of vascular injury.

Blood serum is best described as a component of blood that does not contain WBCs, RBCs, or a clotting factor

It is the clear, yellowish fluid that remains from blood plasma after the fibrinogen and other clotting factors have been removed by clotting.

The percentage of plasma to blood cells is 55% plasma and 45% blood cells.

This ratio describes the relative volumes of plasma (the liquid matrix) and cellular components (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets) in whole blood, known as hematocrit for cellular part.

Serum albumin is the protein found in blood plasma cells.

It is the most abundant protein in blood plasma, crucial for maintaining osmotic pressure, transporting hormones, drugs, and fatty acids.

A reticulocyte is best described as a Red Blood Cell (RBC)

More specifically, it is an immature Red Blood Cell (RBC) that still contains ribosomal RNA and is typically released from the bone marrow into the bloodstream before maturing.

A total blood cholesterol level of 285 mg/dl is best described as high.

A total blood cholesterol level of 285~mg/dl is significantly above the recommended healthy range (< 200 mg/dl), indicating an elevated risk for cardiovascular diseases.

The universal donor blood type for transfusions is Type O.

Individuals with Type O blood can generally donate red blood cells to recipients of any ABO blood type because their red blood cells lack A and B antigens, reducing immune reactions.

Vitamin K is the vitamin that regulates normal blood clotting.

It is an essential fat-soluble vitamin necessary for the liver to synthesize several proteins, including prothrombin, which are vital for blood coagulation.

The Epicardium, Myocardium, and the Endocardium are the three layers of tissue that make up the wall of the heart.

The epicardium is the outer protective layer, the myocardium is the middle muscular layer responsible for contractions, and the endocardium is the smooth inner lining of the chambers and valves.

The diseases endocarditis is best described as an inflammation in the inner lining of the heart chambers and valves.

Often caused by bacterial infection, this serious condition can damage heart valves and lead to complications like heart failure or stroke.

The medical word root CARDI- refers to the heart.

This root word is used in many medical terms related to the heart, such as cardiology (study of the heart) and cardiac (pertaining to the heart).

The combining form ERYTHRO- is best described as the color red.

This combining form is commonly used in medical terminology, particularly in terms related to red blood cells, such as erythrocyte.

The three phases and the correct order of normal hemostasis in the body is vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation and coagulation.

These sequential processes work together to stop bleeding following vascular injury: vasoconstriction reduces blood flow, platelet plug formation provides a temporary seal, and coagulation forms a stable fibrin clot.

Total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL are the fluids measured in blood lipid profile test.

These measurements assess the levels of various fats and fat-like substances in the blood, which are indicators of cardiovascular disease risk.

Hypocalcemia is the diseases identified by prolonged ST and QT intervals.

Hypocalcemia refers to abnormally low calcium levels in the blood, which can affect cardiac electrical activity and manifest as prolonged ST and QT intervals on an ECG.

Plavix is the prescription drug a patient receives during antiplatelet therapy.

Plavix (clopidogrel) is an antiplatelet medication prescribed to prevent blood clots in individuals at risk for or with existing cardiovascular conditions, such as after a heart attack or stroke.

Right-sided heart failure is the heart condition commonly associated with weight gain, nausea, and a decrease in urine output.

This condition occurs when the right ventricle fails to pump blood effectively to the lungs, leading to fluid backup in the systemic circulation, causing peripheral edema (weight gain), hepatic congestion (nausea), and reduced renal perfusion (decreased urine output).

The Pulmonary Vein is the vein that carries oxygenated blood in the body.

Unlike most veins, which carry deoxygenated blood, the pulmonary veins transport oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.

The Aorta is the largest artery in the body.

Originating from the left ventricle, the aorta is the main conduit for distributing oxygenated blood throughout the systemic circulation.

An anticoagulant drug is best described as a chemical substance that reduces the ability of blood to clot

These medications, also known as blood thinners, prevent thrombosis by interfering with the coagulation cascade, commonly used to treat or prevent conditions like deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism.

The diseases Atherosclerosis is best described as a disease of the arteries characterized by the desposition of plaques of fatty material on the inner walls.

This chronic inflammatory disease involves the hardening and narrowing of arteries due to the buildup of plaque, restricting blood flow and increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke.

The Heart is the organ an echocardiogram procedure is performed on.

An echocardiogram uses ultrasound waves to create moving images of the heart, allowing clinicians to assess its structure and function.

A cerebral angiography test is best described as a diagnostic tool that uses x-rays to take images of blood vessels in and around the human brain.

Using a contrast dye and X-rays, this procedure helps visualize the blood supply to the brain, detecting aneurysms, blockages, or other vascular abnormalities.

The primary function of blood platelets in the body is to form clots and prevent bleeding.

Platelets (thrombocytes) are small, anucleated cells in the blood that play a critical role in hemostasis by clumping together to form a plug at sites of vascular injury.

Hemoconcentration is the medical term for a change in blood composition caused by lack of plasma.

It signifies an increase in the concentration of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets due to a reduction in the fluid volume (plasma) of the blood, often indicative of dehydration.

Coronary heart diseases is the heart condition most responsible for a myocardial infarction (MI).

Also known as ischemic heart disease, it involves the narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle, leading to an MI (heart attack) when blood flow is severely reduced or cut off.

The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and ventricle.

This valve prevents the backflow of blood from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction (systole).

Blood flows out of the left ventricle and into the aorta.

This highly oxygenated blood is then pumped by the aorta to the rest of the body through the systemic circulation.

The capillary walls are thin, one cell structures

Composed of a single layer of endothelial cells, this thin structure facilitates efficient exchange of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide), nutrients, and waste products between the blood and surrounding tissues.

Aplastic anemia is the type of anemia that results from injury or destruction of blood cell formation by the bone.

This severe form of anemia arises when the bone marrow is damaged and fails to produce enough new blood cells (red, white, and platelets), leading to pancytopenia.

Abdominal aortic aneurysm is detectable on palpation as a pulsing mass in an area around the umbilicus.

An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a balloon-like bulge in the aorta within the abdomen that, if large enough, can be felt as a pulsating mass and is a serious condition with potential for rupture.

The term arrhythmia is used to identify any abnormal change in the heart rhythm.

An arrhythmia refers to any irregularity in the heart's rate, rhythm, or conduction of electrical impulses, ranging from benign to life-threatening.

With congestive heart failure (CHF), the myocardium of the left ventricle is most commonly affected.

In CHF, the left ventricle's muscular wall (myocardium) often weakens or stiffens, impairing its ability to pump blood effectively to the body, leading to symptoms like shortness of breath and fluid retention.

A patient is considered to have hypertension if the blood pressure is consistently elevated above 140/90.

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is diagnosed when systolic blood pressure is persistently 140~mmHg or higher, or diastolic blood pressure is persistently 90~mmHg or higher, increasing risks for various cardiovascular diseases.

Hypertension is the foremost contributing factor to stroke and kidney damage.

Chronic high blood pressure significantly damages blood vessels throughout the body, including those in the brain and kidneys, leading directly to an increased risk of stroke and renal failure.

Shock, heart failure, and acute blood loss are all common causes of hypotension.

Hypotension, or abnormally low blood pressure, can result from conditions that reduce blood volume (acute blood loss), impair heart's pumping ability (heart failure), or cause widespread vasodilation (shock).

The ECG tracing is generated in about 1 minute on a single 8 x 10 sheet of ECG paper.

A standard ECG provides a concise record of the heart's electrical activity acquired over approximately one minute, typically printed on a standardized grid paper for analysis.

Provider interprets an ECG.

A trained healthcare provider, such as a cardiologist or physician, is responsible for accurately analyzing and interpreting the ECG tracing to diagnose cardiac conditions.

A- Aorta

The largest artery in the body, depicted as (Label A), originating from the left ventricle and distributing oxygenated blood to the systemic circulation.

B- Pulmonary Artery

The artery, depicted as (Label B), that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs.

C- Pulmonary Veins

The veins, depicted as (Label C), that carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.

D- Left Atrium

One of the four chambers of the heart, depicted as (Label D), that receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

E- Left Ventricle

One of the four chambers of the heart, depicted as (Label E), responsible for pumping oxygenated blood into the aorta and to the rest of the body.

F- Apex

The pointed bottom part of the heart, depicted as (Label F), which rests on the diaphragm.

G- Right Ventricle

One of the four chambers of the heart, depicted as (Label G), responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.

H- Inferior Vena Cava

The large vein, depicted as (Label H), that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body back to the right atrium.

I- Right Atrium

One of the four chambers of the heart, depicted as (Label I), that receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cavae.

J- Superior Vena Cava

The large vein, depicted as (Label J), that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body and head back to the right atrium.

A third-degree Atrioventricular heart block is best defined as the heart’s inability to pump blood to the rest of the body causing a complete heart block.

This severe heart block involves a complete interruption of electrical impulses between the atria and ventricles, resulting in independent atrial and ventricular rhythms, which severely compromises the heart's pumping efficiency.

Asystole is the most serious type of cardiac arrest.

Also known as 'flatline,' asystole is characterized by a complete absence of electrical activity in the heart, leading to no discernible heart rhythm and cessation of blood flow.

Green is the color of the electrode placed on the right leg.

In a standard 12-lead ECG, the green electrode is placed on the right leg and serves as the ground reference to reduce electrical interference.

The merging of the P wave and T wave is how the human condition Atrial Flutter is identified on the EKG strip.

Atrial flutter is more accurately identified by a characteristic 'sawtooth' pattern of flutter waves (F waves) in the baseline, often between a normal QRS complex, indicating rapid and regular atrial depolarization at a rate of 250-400~bpm (beats per minute).

A straight line is how the human condition Ventricular Asystole is identified on the EKG strip.

A flat or nearly flat line on the EKG represents ventricular asystole, indicating a complete absence of ventricular electrical activity and mechanical contraction, requiring immediate medical intervention.

Absence of a P wave is how the human condition Atrial Fibrillation is identified on the EKG strip.

Atrial fibrillation is characterized by disorganized electrical activity in the atria, leading to the absence of discernible P waves, an irregularly irregular ventricular rhythm, and fibrillatory waves in the baseline.

The P-R interval for a human Junctional Arrhythmia on an EKG strip is no greater than 0.12.

In a junctional arrhythmia, the electrical impulse originates from the AV node, which either inverts the P wave, places it after the QRS, or buries it within the QRS, often resulting in a P-R interval that is absent or shorter than 0.12~seconds.

Unifocal is the term for multiple premature heartbeats that appear identical on an EKG.

Unifocal premature beats originate from a single ectopic focus in the heart, resulting in identical morphology on the EKG strip, distinguishing them from multifocal beats.

The human condition Ventricular Fibrillation (V-Fib) is created by stimuli causing a chaotic twitch in the ventricles.

V-fib is a life-threatening arrhythmia caused by multiple disorganized electrical impulses leading to a chaotic, irregular twitching of the ventricular muscle, rendering the heart unable to pump blood effectively.

The human arrhythmia, Paroxysmal Atrial Tachycardia, is best described as a rapid and erratic human heart rate that begins suddenly and then stops on its own

PAT is a type of supraventricular tachycardia characterized by episodes of rapid, regular heartbeats originating from the atria, which start and end abruptly.

Ventricular fibrillation is the most serious and life threatening human cardiac dysrhythmia.

V-fib is considered the most critical cardiac dysrhythmia because it leads to immediate loss of consciousness and circulation, requiring immediate defibrillation and CPR.

The first medical intervention for a human patient experiencing a myocardial infarction (MI) is to administer oxygen.

Administering oxygen is an initial, crucial step in managing an MI, as it helps increase oxygen supply to the compromised heart muscle and reduce ischemia, alongside other immediate treatments.

25mm/per second is the standardized rate for the paper running past the stylus on an ECG machine.

This standard paper speed of 25mm/s allows for consistent and reproducible recording of ECG waveforms, enabling accurate measurement of intervals and amplitudes.

Brown is the color of the electrode that is placed on the human chest.

Brown is typically the color code for the chest (V) leads in a 12-lead ECG, placed at specific intercostal spaces around the sternum to record precordial electrical activity.

The electrode placement used as the ground reference on a human patient is the right leg.

The right leg electrode serves as the ground reference in common ECG configurations, helping to reduce electrical noise and ensure a stable baseline in the recording.

Atrial depolarization is the electrical activity a P wave represents during an EKG.

The P wave on an EKG tracing reflects the electrical activation (depolarization) of the atria, which precedes atrial contraction.

A normal human sinus rhythm is best described as a normal heartbeat, heart rate, and heart rhythm beating between 60-100 beats per minute.

Originating from the sinoatrial (SA) node, a normal sinus rhythm is the healthy baseline heart activity characterized by a regular rate and rhythm within the specified range.

Electrodes, amplifiers, connecting wires and output are the primary elements of an EKG machine.

These components work in unison: electrodes detect electrical signals, amplifiers magnify them, connecting wires transmit them, and the output device (e.g., printer, screen) displays the ECG tracing.

0.20 seconds is the number of seconds represented in the 5 small squares, or 1 large square, on an EKG tracing.

Each large square on an EKG grid (composed of 5 small squares horizontally) represents 0.20~seconds (200~ms), a fundamental unit for timing cardiac events.

A cardiac cycle is best described as one complete human heartbeat.

It encompasses all the physiological events that occur from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next, including electrical and mechanical activities (systole and diastole).

Ventricular repolarization is what the T wave represents in the EKG strip.

The T wave indicates the electrical recovery (repolarization) of the ventricles, following their contraction and preceding the next heartbeat.

Ventricular depolarization is what the QRS wave represents in the EKG strip.

The QRS complex signifies the rapid electrical activation (depolarization) of the ventricles, immediately preceding ventricular contraction (systole).

60-90 depolarization per second is the normal firing rate of sinoatrial (SA) node.

The normal firing rate of the sinoatrial (SA) node, the heart's natural pacemaker, typically ranges from 60 to 100 depolarizations per minute, establishing the normal sinus rhythm.

Horizontal axis is the element that measures time in the EKG strip.

The horizontal axis (x-axis) on an EKG grid represents time, where each small square typically equals 0.04~seconds and each large square equals 0.20~seconds.

1mm and 0.04 seconds is the correct length and second interval for the small square on the EKG strip.

Each small square on the EKG grid measures 1mm horizontally (time) and 1mm vertically (voltage), with the horizontal dimension representing 0.04~seconds.

Lead I, Lead II and Lead III is all the electrode bipolar limb leads or (Einthoven’s Triangle).

These three standard bipolar limb leads record the electrical potential difference between two distinct limb electrodes, forming a triangle around the heart conceptually.

The number of prominent waves in one cardiac cycle is 5.

A typical cardiac cycle on an EKG tracing features five prominent waves: P wave, QRS complex (composed of Q, R, and S waves), and T wave, each representing specific electrical events.

The medical term wandering baseline is best described as an artifact that indicates when the stylus moves away from the paper.

This ECG artifact appears as a wavy baseline that drifts up and down, often caused by poor electrode contact, patient movement, or muscle tremors, making interpretation difficult.

White is the color of the electrode placed on a human right arm.

In a standard 12-lead ECG, the white electrode is designated for placement on the right arm, contributing to the limb leads for cardiac electrical recording.

Sinus bradycardia is the human disorder that shows a regular rhythm, with a sinus node rate less than 60 beats per minute, on the EKG strip.

Characterized by a normal P wave morphology and PR interval but with a heart rate below 60~bpm, originating from the SA node, sinus bradycardia is often benign but can indicate underlying issues.

The number of precordial chest leads used in a standard 12 lead EKG recording is 6.

The six precordial (V) leads (V1-V6) are strategically placed across the chest to provide horizontal plane views of the heart's electrical activity, complementing the limb leads.

The human disease Sick Sinus Syndrome is also referred to as Sinoatrial node disease.

Sick Sinus Syndrome describes a group of heart rhythm disorders caused by a malfunctioning sinoatrial (SA) node, the heart's natural pacemaker, leading to episodes of slow heart rate, fast heart rate, or pauses.

The bipolar leads are attached to upper outer arms and inner lower calves

These specific attachment points for the limb electrodes are used to record the electrical potential differences that form Leads I, II, and III of the ECG.

Lead III ECG lead records the voltage difference between the left arm and the left leg.

Lead III measures the electrical potential between the negative electrode on the left arm and the positive electrode on the left leg, providing an inferior view of the heart.

Dextrocardia is the name of the condition when the heart is on the right side of the chest.

This rare congenital condition involves the heart being located on the right side of the chest instead of the typical left, sometimes as part of situs inversus.

V1 lead is placed in the fourth intercostal space on the right side of the sternum.

This precordial lead provides an anterior view of the heart, particularly of the right ventricle and septum.

V2 is the lead placed in the fourth intercostal space on the left side of the sternum.

This precordial lead is positioned on the left side of the sternum, directly opposite V1, providing another anterior view of the heart's electrical forces.

V3 is the lead placed midway between V2 and V4.

Placed between V2 and V4, the V3 lead offers an anteroseptal (front and middle) view of the heart, bridging the electrical perspective of those two leads.

When referring to the leads on the arms and legs, these leads are called limb leads.

Limb leads (standard and augmented) are electrodes placed on the limbs to record electrical activity in the frontal plane of the heart, including Leads I, II, III, aVR, aVL, and aVF.

RA to LA, RA to LL, and LA to LL is the combination that makes up Einthoven’s triangle.

This triangular configuration describes the connections for the three bipolar limb leads: Lead I (RA to LA), Lead II (RA to LL), and Lead III (LA to LL), forming the foundational framework for frontal plane ECG interpretation.

The first ECG machine weighed 600lbs..

Early ECG machines were massive and cumbersome, with the first clinically practical device developed by Willem Einthoven being notoriously heavy, weighing around 600~pounds (272~kg).

If the ECG cycles are too close together, the speed can be changed to 50mm.

To better visualize compressed ECG waveforms, the paper speed can be increased to 50~mm/second (50mm/s), which effectively stretches out the tracing horizontally.

When placing the ECG electrodes on a patient’s lower legs the connectors should point up.

Pointing the connectors upward helps to reduce tension on the lead wires, minimize artifacts caused by cable movement, and ensures optimal electrode contact during ECG recording.