SOC 113 Final Exam Study Guide

What is the difference between agency and structure in sociology?

Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own choices. Structure refers to social forces (like class, gender, race) that constrain or enable those choices.

What does it mean when sociologists say something is socially constructed?

It means the meaning is created through social interaction and depends on historical, political, and social context.

What analogy do sociologists use to describe our relationship with social problems?

t’s like inheriting an old house—you didn’t create the problems, but you’re responsible for repairing them.

How do gender roles appear in everyday life?

Through toys, marketing, shopping, and expectations based on the gender binary—though some societies have more than two genders.

What do sociologists mean when they say race is a social construct?

Race isn’t biological; it’s shaped by context. While not “real” biologically, the consequences of race and racism are real.

How has the definition of “White” changed over time?

Groups once not seen as white (e.g., Irish, Italians) became considered white over time. “Whiteness” is a structural position of racial advantage.

What is structural or institutional racism? Give examples

It’s when institutions disadvantage minorities even without explicit racism. Examples include redlining and mass incarceration.

How were Indigenous Americans forcibly assimilated into U.S. society?

Through boarding schools, child removal, and adoption programs aimed at erasing Indigenous culture and identity.

What is the difference between education and human capital?

Education is the process of learning skills and knowledge; human capital is the economic value of those skills, like a college degree.

What is the hidden curriculum in schools?

The unspoken social rules learned in school—like punctuality, obedience, and politeness—that shape social behavior

What is social capital?

It’s access to resources through social networks. Example: private school students often have more influential connections.

What is the school-to-prison pipeline? Who does it affect most?

It’s the idea that school discipline can lead to incarceration. It primarily affects Black and Hispanic boys.

What is affirmative action? Who benefits from it?

Policies that give preference to certain groups, like women and racial minorities, to correct historic disadvantages.
it also benefits legacy students, athletes, people with good stories ect.

What are key arguments against affirmative action and what does the research say?

Critics say it harms white students, but it affects only ~20% of colleges. Racial quotas are illegal, and affirmative action is now largely banned.

What is the difference between social deviance and crime?

Deviance breaks social norms; crime breaks laws. Example of deviance that's not crime: cutting in line.

What is the difference between punitive and rehabilitative justice?

Punitive justice punishes offenders. Rehabilitative justice focuses on reforming them based on their circumstances.

What is white collar crime and why is it less prosecuted than street crime?

It's crime by professionals (e.g., fraud), often punished less than street crimes, though the text doesn’t say exactly why.

What is the difference between the sacred and the profane?

Sacred refers to things set apart for worship; profane is everyday life. Examples: the U.S. flag or Constitution seen as sacred.

What’s the difference between a denomination and a congregation?

A denomination is a large organizational body of faith; a congregation is a local group of worshippers.

How did the founding fathers of sociology view religion?

• Marx: Religion is the "opiate of the masses" used to oppress.

• Weber: Protestant work ethic helped develop capitalism.

• Durkheim: Religion promotes social cohesion and collective conscience.

What is collective effervescence? What are examples?

It’s the intense emotional unity in group settings. Religious services are one example

How does U.S. religious affiliation compare internationally?

its similarly in a steep decline

How have social movements and religion been intertwined?

The civil rights movement and the role of Black churches are key examples.

What is intersectionality and how does it help explain discrimination?

It examines how overlapping identities shape access to resources and experiences of discrimination.

What is the sociology of sport?

The sociology of sport examines how sports relate to society, culture, and social structures. Topics include national identity, globalization, labor migration, media, gender, race, and ethnicity.

How do sports reflect or perpetuate social inequalities?

Inequalities show up in who gets to play, athlete pay gaps, ticket prices, and which cities get new stadiums. Athletes also face public scrutiny, especially when using their platforms for political views.

What are the social impacts of sports betting?

Sports betting can lead to problem gambling—loss of control over money and time, which causes distress, financial loss, relationship issues, and health problems.

How does criticism in sports reflect broader social inequalities?

Examples include gender pay gaps, debates over trans athletes, racism protests, national conflicts, political advocacy, and abuse in sports organizations—often mirroring wider societal issues.

What are the three theories of collective action, and an example of each?

• Convergence theory: People with similar ideas gather—e.g., someone starts a chant.

• Contagion theory: People conform to group behavior—e.g., standing ovation pressure.

• Emergent norm theory: Leaders create new norms—e.g., soldiers retreating in battle.

What is sportswashing? Give examples.

Sportswashing is using sports to distract from or improve a country’s reputation during controversy. Examples often involve countries hosting events despite human rights issues or political conflicts

What is a social movement? How does it differ from collective action?

A social movement is organized, goal-driven collective behavior seeking social change. It is more sustained and intentional than general collective action, which can be spontaneous and informal.

What are the three stages of social movements?

• Emergence: Identifying the problem.

• Coalescence: Organizing and taking action.

• Routinization: Becoming institutionalized with formal structures.

What are the four dimensions of food security?

• Availability: Is food there?

• Access: Can people get it?

• Utilization: Is it used well (cooking, nutrition)?

• Stability: Is the supply consistent over time?

Hunger vs. Food Insecurity?

• Hunger: Physical feeling of discomfort from lack of food.

• Food insecurity: A household’s lack of financial resources for food

How does food insecurity overlap with other disadvantages?

It's tied to issues like poverty, ethnicity, gender, rural access, housing, transportation, health problems, and low wages—often overlapping and compounding.

Are Americans cooking more or less than a decade ago?

Slightly more

What is the sociology of science?

It studies how scientific communities work, how science affects our lives, and how discoveries can have unexpected social impacts. It also examines who has access to scientific knowledge.

What do sociologists focus on when studying science?

They look at how science is done, how it affects society, its consequences, and who benefits or is harmed by scientific discoveries.

What is the normative view of science?

That science should be objective and unaffected by scientists’ personal beliefs or values

How do social and political factors shape science?

Funding, government policy, interest groups, and international competition can influence what research is pursued.

What is the Matthew Effect in science? Example?

Famous researchers’ work often gets more attention. Named after the idea that "those who have, get more."

What is anthropogenic climate change? Examples?

Climate changes caused by human activities like CO₂ emissions, airplane traffic, deforestation, and urban development that reduces earth’s reflectivity

How are climate disasters experienced unequally? Examples?

In Chicago’s 1995 heatwave, most victims were elderly, Black, poor, and socially isolated. Globally, marginalized populations have fewer options to escape climate threats.

Who is most negatively affected by natural disasters?

Marginalized people—globally and locally.

Marginalized people—globally and locally.

A sequence of events told in order to make a point.

What is a plot?

The structure of a story

What are the three central themes of narratives?

• Self and collectivity: Stories shape identity.

• Disciplinary authority: What we call “facts” are often just accepted stories.

• Liberation: Telling silenced stories can be a form of resistance.

How are stories related to cultural knowledge?

They pass on traditions, create group identity, and shape cultural norms.

Examples of storytelling in institutions?

U.S. founding fathers’ stories, institutional missions, Restoration narratives, and sports team histories.

How do political actors use stories? Examples?

They use them to shape identity, justify actions, and hold power. Examples: Founding fathers’ stories and narratives tied to national values or policies.

What is collective memory?

How groups remember and share past experiences—often tied to major cultural or historical events.

What shapes which stories and histories we hear?

Who tells them. Those in power (often the “winners”) shape the narrative.