Unit 4: Cognition- Thinking & Memory

Concepts

A mental category of a group of objects, events, or ideas that share common characteristics. For example: birds have wings, lay eggs, build nests, fly.

Prototypes

The most common specific example of a concept. They are typical examples of a concept that embody its most representative featuresFor instance, a robin is a prototype of a bird concept. For instance a robin is a good example of a bird.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems using a familiar method, which can inhibit problem-solving by restricting creativity. It often leads to an inability to see alternative solutions. For example: Asking out a person using the same technique over and over again.

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to make judgments about the probability of an event based on how much it resembles a typical case. It can lead to errors in judgment when representative traits are prioritized over actual probabilities, usually based on stereotypes.

Availability Heurstic

A cognitive bias that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. It often leads to overestimating the likelihood of events based on how quickly the event comes to mind. For example, more likely to drive to a vacation destination if the first thing on your mind is a plane crash, even though driving is much more dangerous.

Flashbulb Memory

A highly emotional memory that seems to capture the details of a significant event vividly. These memories are typically formed during high-stress situations and are often perceived as very accurate, although they can be flawed.

Semantic Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory by associating it with meanings, concepts, or relationships. This type of encoding enhances memory retention and retrieval.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device that involves visualizing items to be remembered in specific physical locations. By associating information with familiar places, individuals can enhance recall by mentally walking through those locations.

Distributed Practice

A learning technique that involves spreading out study sessions over time, rather than cramming all at once. This method improves long-term retention and understanding of the material. 

Mass Practice

A learning strategy that involves intensive study sessions over a short period of time, often referred to as cramming. This approach may lead to short-term recall but is less effective for long-term retention.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current emotion. For example, individuals who are happy are more likely to remember positive experiences and people who are depressed are more likely to recall sad memories.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process used to generate multiple ideas or solutions in response to a problem. It encourages creative thinking and exploring various possibilities. Example: Brainstorming possible solutions to a problem.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where a person's memory of an event is altered by misleading information presented after the event, leading to inaccurate recollections. This effect highlights the fallibility of human memory, such as when people watch a crash and are ask how fast were the cars going when they “hit” or “smashed” into each other causes different recall.

Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory that retains brief visual images for a fraction of a second after the stimulus is removed. It allows for the immediate processing of visual information.

Retrograde Amnesia

Individuals lose memories of events that occurred before a specific point in time, often due to injury or trauma to the brain. For instance, a person in a car crash forgets about going to a hockey game the night before.

Anterograde Amnesia

A person is unable to form new memories after the onset of the condition, while memories from before the event remain intact. An example of this would be the case study of Clive Wearing.

Proactive Interference

A phenomenon where old memories interfere with the retrieval of new information, making it harder to learn or remember new material. For example, you move to a new house, but every time you are asked to fill in your address, you can only think of the old address.

Retroactive Interference

The phenomenon where new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, making it more difficult to remember older material. For example, if you learn a new phone number, you might forget your old phone number because the new number interferes with your memory of the old one.

Source Amnesia

A type of memory error where a person is unable to remember the where they heard or read the information, leading to confusion about the origin of information and possibly discrediting the information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem or completing a task, often used in mathematics and computer science. An example would be trial and error, where a person tries every possibility until a solution is found.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows for faster problem-solving and decision-making, often based on previous experiences or common sense, however there might be errors, such as taking a guess at a solution to a problem.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A process that enhances synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a synapse, believed to be a foundation for learning and memory. As you learn, the synaptic connections become stronger and more sensitive which allows for quicker recall.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those that come later, often observed in memory recall tasks of lists.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the end of a list, occurring in memory recall tasks.

Serial Position Effect

The phenomenon where the recall of an item is related to its location within a list, typically indicating that the most forgotten items in a list are in the middle.

Context-Dependent Memory

The improved recall of information when the learning context matches the environment in which it was learned, highlighting the role of situational cues in memory retrieval. For example, a person is more likely to remember a memory if there are studying in the same seat in which they take a test.

Encoding Failure

Not storing information in memory due to not paying attention during the initial learning process, often leading to poor recall. For instance, not remembering what a penny looks like because we don’t pay attention to their fine details.

Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves linking new information to existing knowledge through meaningful associations, thereby enhancing retention and retrieval. For instance, remembering the order of a neuron firing by making an acronym. 

Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for a few seconds after the sound has ceased, allowing for the temporary storage of sounds, like being able to recall the last few words of what was said.

Priming

the activation of specific associations in memory, which influences subsequent thoughts or actions. It can affect memory retrieval and perception without conscious awareness.

Forgetting Curve

A graphical representation that illustrates the decline of memory retention over time, showing how quickly information is forgotten if not actively reviewed or rehearsed.

Repression

A defense mechanism in which unpleasant memories or thoughts are unconsciously excluded from awareness, often related to traumatic events. For instance, a person forgets that a close friend has died because it is too traumatic for them to think about losing a loved one.

Belief Perseverance

the tendency to maintain one's beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence, often leading to bias in judgment and decision-making. Example: People who believe in conspiracy theories will continue to believe the conspiracy even after being shown creditable evidence that it is false.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, regardless of the current costs outweighing the benefits. A person who has invested a lot of money is a failing business will continue to invest money into it because they have already put forth so much.

Storage Decay

the gradual loss of information over time in memory, often due to lack of use or retrieval. If you haven’t though about your 6th grade English teacher for many years, you might have a hard time remembering their name.

Framing Effect

the way information is presented, which can significantly influence decision-making and judgments. For instance, would you rather buy meat that contains only 5% fat or is 95% fat free?

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Implicit Memories

are memories that are not consciously recalled, such as skills or conditioned responses, and are often formed through repetition and experience. Example: Remembering how to ride a bike.

Explicit Memories

A type of declarative memory stored in the hippocampus that require conscious thought, such as recalling facts and events. Example: remembering the name of who was the first president of the United States.

Maintenance Rehearsal

the cognitive process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information to keep it in memory. Example: repeating a word over and over again to keep in memory. BTW- this is a very poor way to make memories.

Effortful Processing

is the process of actively working to encode and remember information, often requiring conscious effort and attention. For example: Using semantic encoding to remember your social security number by chunking the numbers into famous sports players jersey numbers.

Multi-store memory model

Encoding → Storage → Retrieval

Functional Fixedness

is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, hindering creative problem-solving. Example: Seeing a pen only as a writing instruments, and not a way to prop open a door.

State-Dependent Memory

is the phenomenon where retrieval of information is improved when a person is in the same physiological state as when the memory was formed. Example: Better to recall memories made when drunk when a person is drunk again.

Semantic Encoding

The processing of information by its meaning, rather than by its sound or visuals, leading to better retention. Example: remembering someone’s name because it is the same name as your brother’s.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past random events can influence future random events, leading to erroneous decision-making in certain situations. Example: feeling due to a win because of many losses in a row.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory, where specific events or experiences in one's life are recalled, including the context of time and place, allowing for personal recollection. For example, remembering going all the events that happened when you went out to eat with friends over the weekend.

Shallow Processing

Encoding information based on only superficial characteristics, such as the physical appearance of words, leading to poorer retention. For example, only trying to remember a term based on its spelling and not its meaning.

Deep Processing

Encoding information that involves semantic processing, leading to better memories formed; Example: A person remembers psychology terms by making connections to information they have already learned using mnemonic devices.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Where an individual is unable to retrieve a desired word or memory, despite a strong feeling that retrieval is imminent; usually occurs because of a lack of retrieval cues. Example: Trying to think of your 3rd grade teacher’s name and feeling like their name started with a ‘S’, but being unsure.