Asian Religions Exam 4 Essay Questions

According to Sonam Tsemo as summarized by Van Schaik, or according to the Dalai Lama, describe how the path of tantra (or Vajrayāna) is considered both compatible with yet different in certain respects from that of sūtra (i.e., the practice of the “perfections” in Mahāyāna Buddhism).

Similarities between Vajrayana and Mahayana

• Vajrayāna is part of Mahāyāna, not a separate or superior path (Sonam Tsemo).

• Shared foundation in Mahāyāna compassion and wisdom—core aspirations align.

• Tantra begins with Sūtra practices, including the cultivation of bodhicitta (awakening mind).

• Both aim for the same result: full Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings.

• Vajrayāna is described as an extension or deepening, not a contradiction, of Mahāyāna practice.

Differences in Practice:

• Main difference lies in methods, not goals—especially between perfection practices and secret mantra.

• Tantra includes unique rituals: deity visualization, mantra recitation, mandalas, and initiations.

• Sūtra path emphasizes renunciation: sensual objects are seen as obstacles to be rejected.

• Tantra transforms desire: five objects of desire and five poisons become sources of wisdom.

• **Sonam Tsemo notes it’s not the objects but erroneous concepts about them that bind us.

• This leads to transformation: non-conceptual experience of joy and freedom from duality.

Differences in Orientation and Result

• Vajrayāna is the “vehicle of result”—it assumes Buddhahood as the basis for practice.

• Faster path to enlightenment, due to powerful techniques and direct transformation.

• Initiation is required: entry point where teacher blesses the student and connects them to the deity.

• Daily practice (sādhana) involves two stages:

  • Development stage: identify with the deity through visualization.

  • Completion stage: work with subtle internal energies (winds, channels).

• Commitment to samaya vows, especially loyalty to the lama, is central—lama represents the Buddha

Identify 2-3 episodes associated with Guru Nanak’s traditional biography as introduced by Hawley and explain what is significant about the events you choose to interpret. What might they suggest about Sikh religious perspectives?

Disappearance in the Vein River:

• Guru Nanak disappeared in the Vein river near Sultanpur; presumed dead for three days.

• Reemerged transformed, immediately declared: “There is neither Hindu nor Muslim.”

• Marks spiritual initiation or “baptism”—a pivotal moment before public ministry began.

• Declaration transcends sectarian identity, critiques limitations of both Hinduism and Islam.

• Experience framed like Hindu darshan, but inward and auditory, centered on the Divine Name (Naam), signaling a shift to inner devotion over external ritual.

• Suggests Sikhism values inner spiritual transformation, divine grace, and nonsectarian truth

Visit to Mecca:

• Traditional account places Nanak in Mecca, where he sleeps with feet toward the Ka'ba.

• Miracle story: Ka'ba (qibla) rotates when Nanak’s feet are moved—suggests divine presence follows him.

• Narrative demonstrates Nanak’s spiritual authority, even in Islam’s holiest site.

• Implies universality of divine truth, not bound by geographic or ritual orientation.

• Used by hagiographers to show superiority over rival faiths, especially Islam, viewed as dominant and doctrinally rigid.

• Reinforces Sikh emphasis on the formless, omnipresent God, not confined to any particular tradition or direction.

Choose two of the figures introduced in the selections from Figures of Buddhist Modernity in Asia and describe how they represent something about Japanese religious identity and practice in the contemporary period. To what degree do certain features of their lives or work reflect their status as Buddhist practitioners?

Toshiya Unebe: Family-Temple System

• Unebe is a Jōdo Shinshū priest in urban Japan, balancing roles as father, husband, professor.

• Reflects the standard post-Meiji model: priests marry, raise families, and work secular jobs.

• Embodies the ie-based temple system: temple inherited and maintained within families.

• Highlights common issues: succession challenges, property concerns, tradition vs. children's freedom.

• Priesthood seen as both legacy and spiritual reflection, not just personal religious awakening.

Unebe as a Buddhist Practitioner

• His priestly role is shaped by lineage and temple inheritance, not renunciation.

• Shin priests may drink, marry, grow hair; priesthood compatible with lay lifestyle.

• Ordination of sons shows ritual continuity reframed as personal choice.

• Academic study of Buddhism (Pāli, Thai texts) part of his spiritual practice.

• Sees the family temple as a community retreat, illustrating Buddhism’s social function.

Kaneta Taio: Social Engagement in Modern Zen

• Sōtō Zen priest active after the 2011 earthquake and tsunami.

• Led funerals, cremation assistance, chanting, volunteer organization, supply distribution.

• Defines his Buddhist role through action and compassion, not doctrinal purity.

• Represents shift to socially engaged Buddhism, focused on immediate human needs.

• Acts beyond sect boundaries, reflecting non-sectarian aid and interdependence.

Kaneta’s Buddhist Identity in Practice:

• Relief work driven by Buddhist compassion to alleviate suffering.

• Uses ritual (chanting, funerals) in disaster settings, integrating tradition and need.

• Innovated “Café de Monk” for trauma care—mixing coffee, jazz, and open listening.

• Part of “clinicization” of Buddhism, adapting to emotional and social care contexts.

• Collaborates with other professionals and faiths, reflecting a transreligious, pragmatic approach.

Based on the film “Shugendō Now” and the accompanying essays and course materials, why was Shugendō banned during the Meiji period of modern Japanese history? In what ways does its contemporary form continue to reflect long-standing Japanese religious concerns, and how has Shugendō adapted to serve the needs of modern Japanese?

Reasoning for Shugendo’s Ban

• Shugendō viewed as syncretic: Blended Shintō, Esoteric Buddhism, and folk practices—conflicted with Meiji state's goal of religious purity.

• Shinbutsu Bunri (separation of kami and buddhas): State-imposed separation of Shintō and Buddhism made Shugendō illegal in 1872.

• Meiji modernization agenda: Emphasis on rationalism, national unity, and state Shintō—Shugendō seen as superstitious and feudal.

• Suppression of mountain asceticism: Distrusted by modernizers due to its association with rural and marginal populations.

• Decline of temple support: Shugendō's Buddhist institutions lost influence and funding under new religious regulations.

Continuity with Japanese Tradition

• Syncretic spiritual heritage: Still integrates Kami worship, Esoteric Buddhism, Shamanism, and Daoism.

• Mountain-centered practice: Sacred mountains remain central as loci of divine presence and transformation.

• Core ritual—nyūbu shugyō (“entering the mountain”): Continued focus on purification and spiritual power.

• Use of symbolic Buddhist elements: Rokkon shōjō (purification of six senses), lotus imagery, mandalas projected on landscapes.

• Ongoing folk religiosity: Practices like spirit appeasement and gratitude offerings persist.

• Nature spirituality: Upholds deep reverence for the natural world as sacred and alive.

Adaptation to Modern Needs

• Response to modern crises: Offers spiritual healing for depression, isolation, and “no hope” sentiments post-economic downturns.

• Reconnection with community and environment: Counters urban alienation through shared practice and nature immersion.

• Use of digital media: Priests and guides use the Internet to expand access and relevance.

• Eco-conscious reinterpretation: Some leaders frame practice as ecological activism or “eco-pilgrimage.”

• Inclusive motivations: Attracts people seeking friendship, challenge, and meaning—beyond traditional religious goals.

• Urban-rural bridge: Integrates mountain insights with everyday urban life, enhancing relevance.

• Flexible pedagogy: Study materials and experiences tailored for diverse modern learners.

How does Sikhism maintain continuity with elements of Hindu tradition, and in what ways does it seek to reject or surpass particular Hindu ideas and practices?

Same as Hinduism

• Belief in karma and rebirth: Sikhism retains Hindu notions of karma (moral causation) and reincarnation.

• Mukti (liberation): Like moksha in Hinduism, Sikhism emphasizes liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

• Bhakti tradition: Sikhism is rooted in the Bhakti movement, emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti) to a formless God.

• Use of Indic language and imagery: Sikh scripture (Guru Granth Sahib) uses Punjabi and Sanskrit-derived vocabulary; it also includes compositions by Hindu bhaktas.

• Cultural overlaps: Sikh festivals, customs, and social practices reflect shared North Indian cultural patterns (e.g., Diwali celebration).

Different from Hinduism

• Rejection of polytheism and idol worship: Sikhism emphasizes Ik Onkar (One Supreme Reality), rejecting the worship of Hindu deities and idols.

• No caste hierarchy: Sikhism opposes the Hindu varna system; emphasizes egalitarianism (sangat and langar illustrate this).

• No asceticism or renunciation: Sikhism values grhastha (householder life), contrasting with Hindu emphasis on sannyasa (renunciation).

• Scriptural authority: Rejects the Vedas and other Hindu texts as ultimate truth; the Guru Granth Sahib is the sole scripture.

• No ritual purity rules: Dismisses Hindu ideas of ritual pollution and purity (e.g., menstruation, food taboos).

How Sikhism Surpasses Hinduism

• Guru principle: Replaces the Brahmin priesthood with the authority of the ten Gurus and the Guru Granth Sahib.

• Khalsa identity: Introduces a disciplined spiritual-political community committed to justice and service—goes beyond Hinduism's inward-focused spirituality.

• Emphasis on social justice: Combines spiritual devotion with active resistance to injustice (e.g., martyrdom of Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur).

• Universalism: Welcomes people from all religions, surpassing Hindu sectarian boundaries.

• Living scripture: Unlike static Hindu texts, the Guru Granth Sahib is seen as the eternal Guru, dynamic and central to communal identity.

Why have some scholars asserted that it is problematic to define Shintō merely as “the way of the kami” and the indigenous religion of Japan? Describe at least 2-3 different ways Shintō is more complex than this straightforward definition might suggest.

• Multiple Historical Constructions: Shintō was not a continuous, unified tradition from ancient times; modern Shintō was largely constructed in the Meiji period to support state ideology and emperor worship.

• Blurred Religious Boundaries: Historically, Shintō was deeply intertwined with Buddhism and other traditions. Many shrines operated within Buddhist contexts, making it hard to separate "Shintō" as an independent religion before modern times.

• Diverse Local Practices: What is labeled "Shintō" includes localized folk practices, seasonal festivals, and rituals that many Japanese do not perceive as religious, but rather as cultural or communal events.

• Modern Reinvention: Post-WWII, Shintō was reshaped again—as a non-religious public ritual system (e.g., hatsumōde, shichi-go-san)—largely to comply with constitutional secularism, further complicating its classification