APUSH UNIT 7 YUH

Differences between 1st and 2nd New Deal

1st New Deal (1933-34): focused on immediate relief — getting people jobs through programs like CCC, CWA, and PWA, and stabilizing banks with the FDIC and Glass-Steagall. 2nd New Deal (1935-36): shifted to helping those who COULDN'T work — created Social Security (old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, disability benefits) and strengthened labor rights via the Wagner Act. Both used Keynesian logic of injecting money into the economy, but the 2nd New Deal built a permanent safety net.

Similarities between 1st and 2nd New Deal

Both relied on Keynesian economics (government spending to stimulate demand), both massively expanded federal power, both faced Supreme Court challenges, and neither fully ended the Depression — that required WWII wartime spending. Both also increased the federal government's role in everyday life in ways that became permanent.

US on the Global Stage — From Isolationist to Necessary

From Washington's Farewell Address through WWI, the U.S. preferred isolationism. WWI reluctantly drew the U.S. in (Wilson's neutrality collapsed under submarine warfare and the Zimmermann telegram). By WWII, the U.S. became the Arsenal of Democracy — the essential supplier of tanks, planes, and food to the Allies. After WWII, the U.S. emerged as the only major power NOT devastated, making it the dominant force shaping the global economy (Marshall Plan, Bretton Woods, UN).

Role of Government — How the New Deal Changed Expectations

Before the New Deal, the federal government's role in daily life was minimal (post offices, occasional infrastructure). After the New Deal: FDIC logo appears on every bank, Social Security tax appears on every paycheck, federal loans prevented state bankruptcies. Americans began expecting the government to manage unemployment, retirement, and economic stability — a fundamental shift that still shapes politics today.

Total War — Includes People Historically Excluded

Total war (WWI and WWII) required mobilizing ALL of society, which pulled in historically marginalized groups. Women entered factories (Rosie the Riveter, 6 million women in WWII workforce). African-Americans served in segregated units and migrated north (Great Migration). This created contradictions — groups sacrificing for democracy while denied equality at home — which accelerated later civil rights demands.

Progressive Movement to Gilded Age Pt. 2 to Minimum Wage and Limits for Farmers

Progressives fought Gilded Age corporate excess with antitrust laws, consumer protection, and labor reforms. The 1920s (Gilded Age Pt. 2) saw business-friendly Republicans roll back regulation. The New Deal went further than progressives ever had: the NRA set minimum wages and production codes, the AAA paid farmers to reduce output, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) established a permanent federal minimum wage and 40-hour workweek.

Role of Business Changes — Gilded Age to New Deal

Gilded Age: businesses operated with almost no federal oversight; robber barons wielded enormous power. Progressive Era: antitrust suits (Northern Securities), ICC regulation. 1920s: business and government became partners (Coolidge: the chief business of America is business). New Deal: government directly dictated wages, hours, and production through NRA codes — fundamentally changing what businesses could do.

How America Sees Itself — Great Gatsby to Impoverished America

The 1920s: America saw itself as prosperous, modern, and invincible — symbolized by The Great Gatsby's wealth, the stock market boom, and mass consumerism. After 1929: 9,000 banks failed, 9 million savings accounts wiped out, Hoovervilles appeared in cities, the Dust Bowl displaced millions. America's self-image collapsed from optimistic consumer nation to a country questioning capitalism itself — opening the door for FDR's radical expansion of government.

Reaction to the Holocaust

Allied troops uncovering Nazi concentration and extermination camps in 1945 shocked the world. Eisenhower ordered thorough documentation, fearing future denial. The Holocaust intensified U.S. support for a Jewish homeland (Israel created 1948) and reinforced the narrative of WWII as a moral crusade for freedom. It also pressured the U.S. to address its own racial hypocrisy — Soviet propaganda depicted the Statue of Liberty lynching an African-American, embarrassing the U.S. globally.

16th Amendment

Ratified 1913; established the federal income tax, shifting federal revenue away from tariffs. Top rate rose from 7% (1912) to 77% (1918) during WWI. Made all New Deal and wartime spending possible. Part of the Progressive Era's four major constitutional amendments.

17th Amendment

Ratified 1913; established the direct election of U.S. Senators by voters instead of state legislatures — a key Progressive Era democratic reform removing power from political machines.

18th Amendment

Ratified 1919; prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol (Prohibition). Enforcement proved impossible; bootlegging flourished; organized crime (Al Capone) thrived. Repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933 partly to boost tax revenues during the Depression.

19th Amendment

Ratified August 1920; granted women the right to vote. Passed after WWI when women's wartime contributions made denial of suffrage harder to justify. Women then surprised Democrats by voting overwhelmingly Republican (Harding) in 1920.

Great Depression — Worse Effects on Minorities

African-Americans faced higher unemployment rates (last hired, first fired). Mexican-Americans and Mexican immigrants were forcibly repatriated — millions sent to Mexico regardless of citizenship to free up jobs. Social Security initially excluded domestic workers and farm laborers (predominantly Black), meaning minorities were less covered by the New Deal's safety net. Native Americans also faced continued poverty. The Depression hit hardest those who had least economic cushion.

Higher Black Unemployment During the Depression

African-Americans were disproportionately hurt by the Depression due to racial discrimination in hiring. Even New Deal programs were applied unequally — CCC and other agencies often excluded or segregated Black workers. The NAACP pushed back, and the New Deal coalition eventually drew African-American voters to the Democratic Party for the first time in large numbers, shifting a political alignment that had held since Lincoln.

Forced Repatriation of Immigrants During the Depression

During the Depression, 1-2 million people of Mexican descent (including U.S. citizens) were forcibly repatriated to Mexico through government pressure and deportation campaigns. Driven by racism and job scarcity, local and federal agencies pushed Mexicans out to reduce relief rolls — a direct contradiction of American ideals that paralleled the discrimination faced by Black Americans.

Evolving Relationship with Latin America

Monroe Doctrine (1823): No European colonization in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt Corollary (1904): U.S. will intervene in Latin American nations that can't manage their own affairs — justified occupations of Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua. Good Neighbor Policy (FDR, 1933): Renounced unilateral U.S. intervention; pledged non-interference. Shift from policing the hemisphere to influencing it through economic ties rather than military force.

Monroe Doctrine to Roosevelt Corollary to Good Neighbor Policy

Monroe Doctrine: Keep European powers out of the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt Corollary: Extended this — if a Latin American nation couldn't manage its affairs, the U.S. would intervene to prevent European involvement. Good Neighbor Policy (FDR, 1933): Reversed the Corollary; the U.S. pledged non-intervention and mutual respect. Evolution: exclude Europe, then U.S. as regional police, then U.S. as cooperative partner.

Court Packing Scheme

FDR's 1937 proposal to add up to 6 new justices (expanding the Court from 9 to 15) after the Supreme Court struck down key New Deal programs (NRA via Schechter v. U.S.; AAA via U.S. v. Butler). FDR argued he needed younger judges for efficiency. Congress rejected it as an attack on judicial independence — it backfired politically. However, the threat may have influenced the Court to begin upholding New Deal legislation, called the switch in time that saved nine.

Keynesian Economics vs. Supply-Side Economics

Keynesian: help people at the bottom first — if there are no jobs, government must CREATE them; workers' wages circulate and stimulate demand upward. Foundation of the New Deal (CCC, WPA, PWA). Supply-Side: support big economic producers because their wealth trickles down to workers and consumers. Hoover's Reconstruction Finance Corporation took this approach. Keynesian dominated policy from the New Deal through the 1960s; supply-side returned under Reagan in the 1980s.

Successes of the New Deal

Banking system stabilized (FDIC stopped bank runs, Glass-Steagall regulated banks). Social Security created a permanent safety net still in existence. Labor rights expanded (Wagner Act, minimum wage, 40-hour workweek). Unemployment fell significantly from ~25% peak. Federal arts programs (WPA) preserved cultural history. Restored public confidence via fireside chats. Permanently expanded the federal government's role in economic life and set the template for the modern welfare state.

What the New Deal Did NOT Accomplish

Did not end the Great Depression — full recovery required WWII wartime spending. When FDR cut spending in 1937 fearing inflation, ~5 million workers lost jobs and productivity fell ~40%, causing a second recession. New Deal programs also largely excluded minorities (Social Security initially excluded farm and domestic workers, who were predominantly Black). The Court Packing Scheme failed and damaged FDR's political capital.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

Wilson's 1918 peace framework: (1) Self-determination — peoples choose their own government; (2) Open Alliances — no secret treaties; (3) Freedom of the Seas — no unrestricted submarine warfare; (4) Reduction of Armaments; (5) Free Trade — remove tariffs to create economic interdependence; (6) League of Nations — permanent body for collective security and dispute resolution. The U.S. Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and never joined the League, crippling it from the start.

Self-Determination

The legal right of peoples to choose their own government and political status. Wilson championed it but applied it selectively — primarily to white European peoples. Vietnamese nationalist Ho Chi Minh sought Wilson's support at Versailles and was rebuffed. The Versailles Treaty only applied self-determination to European ethnic groups, sowing resentment in Asia and Africa that later fueled Cold War conflicts and independence movements.

Evolution of Wilson's Views on Neutrality

1914: Strict neutrality in thought and deed — both sides needed American arms and supplies. 1916: Won re-election on He kept us out of war. 1917: Neutrality collapsed — Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sank U.S. ships, the Zimmermann Telegram proposed Mexico attack the U.S., and Russia's revolution made the Allies look more democratic. April 1917: Wilson asked Congress to declare war to make the world safe for democracy — completing his transformation from strict neutral to crusading internationalist.

Federal Government Increase in Size

Pre-New Deal: federal spending was ~3% of GNP. By 1932: ~12% of GNP. WWII peak (1944): ~40% of GNP. Today: entitlements (Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid) constitute over 50% of federal outlays; the military accounts for only ~16%. The New Deal permanently transformed Americans' relationship with the federal government — from minimal presence to active manager of economic security.

Politics of the 1920s — Overview

Republicans dominated on a platform of normalcy (Harding), business partnership (Coolidge), and isolationism. High protective tariffs (McCumber Tariff) replaced Wilson's free-trade ideals. Stock market participation expanded to ~1/3 of Americans; GNP rose from $60B to $90B. But underneath the boom: labor unions weakened, farm prices fell, speculative bubbles grew, and inequality widened. Scandals (Teapot Dome) revealed corruption behind the respectable surface.

Corruption Scandals — Teapot Dome

Teapot Dome: Interior Secretary Albert Fall secretly leased naval oil reserves in Wyoming to private companies and took bribes — the government received nothing. Veterans Bureau officials sold medicine and hospital equipment on the open market for personal profit. Attorney General Palmer sold seized immigrant property for personal gain. Harding's administration became synonymous with corruption, though Harding died before the full scandal broke publicly.

Harlem Renaissance

A flourishing of Black artistic, musical, and intellectual life in the 1920s rooted in the Great Migration's concentration of African-Americans in Northern cities, especially Harlem in New York. Key figures: W.E.B. Du Bois (scholar/activist), Marcus Garvey (Pan-African nationalism, Black self-determination), Langston Hughes (Dream Deferred poem), Louis Armstrong (jazz). Jazz crossed racial lines and became a uniquely American art form originating from African-American musical traditions.

Growth of Religious Fundamentalism

A 1920s backlash against scientific modernity and urban culture; movement insisted on literal interpretation of scripture, rejecting evolutionary theory. Strongest in the South and Midwest, where rural church-centered communities felt threatened by urban secular values (flappers, jazz, speakeasies). By the late 1800s most mainstream denominations had accepted evolution, making the 1920s revival a conscious rejection of modernity — illustrated by the Scopes Trial.

Scopes Trial — Evolution Taught in Schools

Tennessee law banned teaching evolution in public schools. John T. Scopes (teacher) deliberately violated it; Clarence Darrow defended him; William Jennings Bryan prosecuted. Scopes was found guilty (later overturned on a technicality). Symbolized the urban-rural, modern-traditional clash of the 1920s — Modernists argued evolution and Christianity could coexist; Fundamentalists demanded literal Genesis. The trial showed how legal battles could become arenas for broader cultural warfare.

KKK — 1860s vs. 1920s

1860s KKK: Founded post-Civil War in the South; targeted freed Black people and Republican politicians through terrorism; suppressed by federal Reconstruction enforcement. 1920s KKK: Revived after Birth of a Nation (1915) glorified it; grew to 3-8 million members; moved far beyond the South into the Midwest (one-third of Indiana's male population); expanded targets to include Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and communists. The 1920s Klan was more organized, mainstream, and geographically widespread than its 19th-century predecessor.

Differences between Fascism and Communism

Fascism: extreme nationalist, hierarchical, racist, pro-private property but state-directed economy, anti-communist, ruled by charismatic strongman (Hitler, Mussolini); welfare tied to national and racial identity. Communism: internationalist, egalitarian across races and classes, collective ownership of production, workers' revolution eliminates class distinctions (Lenin, Stalin); welfare tied to class solidarity. Both are authoritarian and anti-democratic, but fascism uses nationalism and racism while communism uses class struggle — making them bitter ideological enemies.

Causes of the Great Depression

(1) Speculative stock market bubble — irrational enthusiasm drove prices far above real value. (2) Overproduction and under-demand — factories kept producing while consumers ran out of purchasing power. (3) Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930) — raised tariffs ~60%, triggered global retaliation, caused a 50% drop in international trade. (4) Bank failures — ~9,000 banks failed; 9 million savings accounts wiped out. (5) Agricultural collapse and Dust Bowl — over-farming exhausted soil. (6) Weak regulatory framework — no FDIC, no SEC, no oversight of reckless speculation.

Commerce Clause and New Deal Expansion

FDR justified sweeping New Deal programs using the Interstate Commerce Clause (Congress can regulate trade among states). The Supreme Court initially struck down the NRA (Schechter v. U.S.) and AAA (U.S. v. Butler) as federal overreach. FDR then proposed the Court Packing Scheme — adding up to 6 new justices. The plan failed politically, but the Court soon began upholding New Deal legislation. This permanently expanded the modern interpretation of federal regulatory power far beyond its original intent.

America's Essential Role in the Global Economy After WWII

WWII left the U.S. as the only major Allied power not devastated by war. The U.S. produced roughly 100% of total Allied war output. After 1945: Marshall Plan injected ~$13 billion to rebuild Europe (creating export markets for U.S. goods); Bretton Woods established the dollar as the global reserve currency; the U.S. founded the IMF, World Bank, and helped create the UN. The U.S. went from isolationist to the essential architect of the entire postwar global economic and security system

Progressivism

Roosevelt's domestic reform era focused on regulating corporations, protecting consumers, and conserving natural resources through active government intervention in the economy.

"The Square Deal"

Roosevelt's domestic agenda built on three C's: Control of corporations, Consumer protection, and Conservation of natural resources; won by a massive 1904 landslide.

Consumer Protection

Pre-1906 doctrine of caveat emptor (buyer beware) was replaced when Roosevelt pushed the Pure Food and Drug Act, establishing FDA authority over what could be sold and ingested.

Control of Corporations

Roosevelt's shift from "lazy fair politics" to active regulation, declaring the government would no longer be a passive referee; demonstrated by the Northern Securities antitrust case.

Conservation of Resources

Roosevelt's most distinctive legacy — setting aside large tracts of western land and creating the National Forest Service to ensure sustainable use of resources for future generations.

National Parks; Yellowstone, Yosemite

Protected public lands established under federal authority; conservation of these areas was central to Roosevelt's Square Deal and his personal experience as a Western rancher.

Department of the Interior

Federal department responsible for managing public lands and natural resources, central to Roosevelt's conservation initiatives.

John Muir & Sierra Club

Muir was a preservationist who founded the Sierra Club; unlike Roosevelt's utilitarian conservation stance, Muir believed lands should remain untouched and unexploited.

Conservation v. Preservation

Conservation = sustainable use of resources for future generations (Roosevelt's view); Preservation = keep lands untouched with no use at all (John Muir's view).

Gifford Pinchot

Roosevelt's chief of the National Forest Service; his firing by Taft was seen as an attack on Roosevelt's conservation legacy and helped trigger the 1912 Republican split.

William Howard Taft

Roosevelt's hand-picked successor; moderate Republican who busted more trusts than Roosevelt but lacked his charisma; fired Pinchot and raised the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, angering progressives.

Coal Miners' Strike (1902)

Roosevelt intervened by bringing strike leaders and mining executives together, threatening to nationalize the mines — a break from presidents who had previously sided with business.

Upton Sinclair & The Jungle

Muckraking novel whose graphic depiction of meat-packing conditions shocked the public; readers focused on food safety rather than Sinclair's immigrant-poverty message, spurring the Pure Food and Drug Act.

Food & Drug Act (1906), Meat Inspection Act (1906)

Landmark consumer protection laws passed after public outrage over The Jungle; established FDA authority and federal inspection of meat-packing plants.

"The Bully Pulpit"

Roosevelt's concept of using the presidency and media access to bypass party machines and communicate directly with the public, shifting toward a president-centered democracy.

The Elkins Act & The ICC

Roosevelt revived the Interstate Commerce Commission and used the Elkins Act to combat railroad monopolies; threatened antitrust suits against proposed railroad mergers.

Northern Securities Trust, John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan, & the Sherman Anti-Trust Act

J.P. Morgan and Rockefeller sought to control over half the nation's railroads through Northern Securities; Roosevelt filed antitrust action and triumphed, proving no private interest was above the law.

Woodrow Wilson & The Election of 1912

Wilson (Democrat) won with ~43% of the popular vote but 82% of electoral votes due to the Republican split; the only U.S. president to hold a doctoral degree; advocated parliamentary-style government reforms.

"New Nationalism" & healthcare

Roosevelt's 1912 Bull Moose platform calling for strong federal regulation of industry, public healthcare as a right, social security proposals, and broad democratic participation.

"New Freedom"

Wilson's 1912 Democratic platform emphasizing tariff reform, regulation of big business, financial assistance for farmers, and central-banking reform to combat deflation.

"Bull Moose" (Progressive) Party

Roosevelt's third-party vehicle in 1912; nicknamed for Roosevelt's boast of feeling like a bull moose; remains the strongest third-party showing in U.S. presidential history.

Taft v. Roosevelt v. Wilson v. Debs

The four-candidate 1912 race: Taft (Republican), Roosevelt (Progressive/Bull Moose), Wilson (Democrat), Debs (Socialist with ~6% of the vote); all broadly agreed on a larger governmental role.

Sixteenth Amendment and the income tax

Shifted federal revenue from tariffs to income taxes; top rate rose from 7% (1912) to 77% (1918) to fund progressive reforms and WWI.

Seventeenth Amendment and the direct election of Senators

Progressive reform that allowed voters to directly elect U.S. Senators rather than having them chosen by state legislatures, expanding democracy.

Creation of the Federal Reserve System

Central banking reform under Wilson; addressed deflation's harm to agricultural purchasing power and provided stability for the monetary system.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

Wilson-era legislation that strengthened antitrust enforcement and exempted labor unions from prosecution under the Sherman Act; Samuel Gompers called it the "Magna Carta of labor."

Federal Trade Commission

Agency established under Wilson to regulate business practices and prevent anti-competitive behavior, complementing the Clayton Antitrust Act.

Progressive City and State Reforms

Urban and state-level progressive measures including municipal reform, commission plans, city manager plans, and expanded direct democracy tools.

municipal reform

Progressive-era effort to root out political machine corruption in cities, replacing boss-controlled governments with more efficient, professional management structures.

commission plan, city manager plan

Progressive municipal government innovations replacing corrupt ward-based politics with appointed professional administrators or elected commissions responsible for city services.

initiative, referendum, recall

Direct democracy tools championed by progressives: initiative allows citizens to propose laws, referendum lets voters approve or reject laws, recall allows removal of elected officials.

direct primary

Progressive reform allowing ordinary voters rather than party bosses to choose candidates for office; Roosevelt won 9 of 12 open primaries in 1912 but lost states using elite-controlled systems.

Robert LaFollette

Progressive Wisconsin governor and senator known for regulatory commissions and challenging corporate power; exemplified state-level progressive reform.

regulatory commissions

State and federal agencies created by progressives to oversee industries like railroads, utilities, and corporations in the public interest.

William Seward

Lincoln and Johnson's Secretary of State who pursued a global presence for the U.S., sought to prevent European encirclement, and orchestrated the 1867 Alaska Purchase.

Monroe Doctrine

U.S. policy opposing European colonization or interference in the Western Hemisphere; Seward used it as a foundation; Roosevelt later expanded it with his Corollary.

French in Mexico

During the Civil War, France installed Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico; Seward pressured France to withdraw, reinforcing the Monroe Doctrine.

Alaska Purchase (1867)

Seward bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million; initially mocked as "Seward's Folly," it proved strategic and economically valuable via the Klondike Gold Rush.

Pan-American Conference (1889)

Secretary of State James G. Blaine's initiative to position the U.S. as economic leader of Latin America and push for reduced trade barriers allowing American goods to flow freely southward.

Venezuela boundary dispute

Late 19th-century crisis where the U.S. invoked the Monroe Doctrine to challenge British interference in a Venezuela-British Guiana border dispute, signaling U.S. hemispheric dominance.

Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, & Sanford Dole

Queen Liliuokalani ruled Hawaii under a constitutional monarchy undermined by the Bayonet Constitution (1887); sugar planter Sanford Dole orchestrated her overthrow in 1893 with U.S. Marines, creating the Hawaiian Republic.

international Darwinism (Social Darwinism applied to nations)

Social Darwinism framed empire as a sign of biological fitness among nations; "might makes right" justified colonial rule as the natural order and drove competition for overseas territories.

Relationship between imperialism, resources, & technology

Industrial Revolution created exponential demand for coal, rubber, and steel beyond domestic supplies, driving European and American expansion into previously avoided regions.

Josiah Strong, Alfred Thayer Mahan

Strong promoted Anglo-Saxon divine commission to civilize the world; Mahan argued maritime supremacy is essential for national prosperity and influenced Roosevelt, Kaiser Wilhelm II, and U.S. strategic planners.

Spanish-American War (1898)

Triggered by Cuban rebellion, yellow journalism, and the USS Maine explosion; called a "splendid little war" but resulted in U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking America's emergence as an overseas empire.

"Remember the Maine"

Rallying cry after the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor (Feb 15, 1898), killing ~260 crew; yellow journalists blamed Spanish sabotage though later investigation suggested internal failure.

Teller Amendment, Platt Amendment

Teller Amendment (1898): U.S. would not annex Cuba after the war; Platt Amendment (1901): guaranteed Cuban "independence" while permitting U.S. intervention and the lease of Guantanamo Bay.

Philippines War

Philippine-American War (1899-1902) resulting from U.S. annexation after the Spanish-American War; caused ~4,300 U.S. deaths and up to 1,000,000 Filipino civilian deaths, exposing the hypocrisy of the "liberation" narrative.

The Open Door Policy

U.S. policy demanding equal trading rights for all nations in China, protecting American commercial interests without formal colonization of Chinese territory.

Big Stick Diplomacy, Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

Roosevelt's extension of the Monroe Doctrine: any interference in the Western Hemisphere was a hostile act against the U.S.; justified American intervention in Latin American nations that could not manage their own affairs.

Dollar Diplomacy

Taft's foreign policy using U.S. financial power to influence Latin American nations, discouraging European debt-dependency by having American banks provide loans instead.

Great White Fleet

Roosevelt's fleet of 16 battleships sent on a world tour (1907-09) to demonstrate U.S. naval power and signal that America was no longer isolationist.

Woodrow Wilson & Moral Diplomacy

Wilson's foreign policy approach rejecting Dollar Diplomacy; sought to promote democracy and human rights abroad, though it still led to interventions in Mexico and Haiti.

Occupation of Veracruz (The "Tampico Incident")

Wilson ordered the occupation of Veracruz in 1914 to block German arms shipments to Mexican dictator Huerta, whom Wilson refused to recognize as Mexico's leader.

Anti-Imperialist League

Organization opposing overseas expansion; founding members included Samuel Gompers, Andrew Carnegie, Jane Addams, and William James; argued annexation violated America's anti-imperialist principles and democratic values.

Pancho Villa & Raid on New Mexico

1916 raid on Columbus, New Mexico by Villa's forces; Wilson launched a U.S. military expedition into Mexico to capture Villa, which ultimately failed.

Occupation of Haiti (1915)

Wilson deployed U.S. Marines after the assassination of Haiti's president; occupation lasted until 1934, reflecting moral diplomacy's contradiction of intervening while preaching self-determination.

"Yellow Journalism," William Randolph Hearst

Sensationalist journalism relying on exaggeration and unverified claims to boost circulation; Hearst's New York Journal and Pulitzer's New York World inflamed public opinion before the Spanish-American War.

Impressionism v. Realism

Impressionism evokes mood through loose brushwork and vivid colors; the Ashcan School (Realism) reacted against idealization by depicting harsh, everyday urban life with a more truthful palette.

Frank Lloyd Wright & "Prairie School"

Architectural movement aiming to synthesize buildings with their natural surroundings, echoing romantic nostalgia for lost landscapes.

Frederick Law Olmstead & "landscape architecture"

Designer of Central Park as a public, egalitarian green space amid soaring real-estate values; symbolized democratic access to nature in an urban environment.

Jelly Roll Morton & Jazz

Morton was considered the "Father of Jazz"; jazz emerged from African-American musical traditions (ragtime, blues) in the saloon culture of the late 19th century.

Ashcan School, Robert Henri, John Sloan

Realist art movement whose members depicted the harsh, gritty reality of everyday urban life, contrasting with the idealized scenes of Impressionism.

Literary Realism

Literary style depicting ordinary problems and social issues of the era; figures like Upton Sinclair and Mark Twain blended reportage with fiction to challenge societal norms.