Philosophy, Logic & Human Excellence – Lecture Review

Question-and-answer flashcards covering key terms, definitions, thinkers, logical concepts, and fallacies from the lecture notes on Philosophy, Logic, and Human Excellence.

What do the Greek roots "philo" and "sophia" literally mean?

“Philo” means love, interest, quest, or passion, while “sophia” means wisdom or knowledge.

How is philosophy generally defined in the lecture?

As the search for ultimate reality and the continual quest for knowledge that addresses fundamental problems of human existence.

Name the four classical branches of philosophy introduced.

Ethics, Metaphysics, Logic, and Epistemology.

What is Ethics according to the notes?

The science or study of human conduct—specifically, what is right or wrong in behaviour.

What is the literal meaning of the Greek term "metaphysics"?

From meta (above/beyond) and physika (phenomena); it studies realities beyond what the five senses can grasp.

Provide the working definition of Metaphysics given in class.

The study of events or entities that lie above or beyond simple physical phenomena.

How is Logic defined in the notes?

The science of human thought and reasoning, concentrating on argument; it is viewed as a tool of philosophy.

Why is Logic called a "tool" of philosophy?

Because it is primarily used to achieve philosophical ends by evaluating arguments.

What is Epistemology concerned with?

The nature, sources, types, transmission, and problems of knowledge.

List the four epistemological schools of thought discussed.

Empiricism, Idealism, Materialism, and Rationalism.

What is Empiricism, and which two British philosophers popularised it?

The view that scientific research and sense-experience are the best sources of knowledge; championed by Bishop George Berkeley and John Locke.

Summarise Idealism as presented in the lecture.

The belief that reality has both physical and spiritual forms, with the spiritual controlling the physical.

What does Materialism claim about knowledge?

Only what can be observed, felt, or touched counts as true knowledge; emphasis is on practical, physical examination.

State the basic principle of Rationalism and name two leading rationalists.

Human reasoning is the best source of knowledge; key figures are Benedict Spinoza and René Descartes.

What important caution about knowledge is noted across all schools?

There is no such thing as absolute knowledge; each type is limited or faulty in some way.

Define Cosmology as used in the lecture.

The study of the universe, focusing on celestial bodies and how the earth came into existence.

How is a myth described?

An untrue story lacking sufficient evidence yet offered to explain the existence of things or events.

What element did Thales claim was the primary substance of everything?

Water; he also said everything is full of ‘gods’ (no vacuum).

What two ideas did Anaximander propose about the earth?

That the earth is oval and composed of an inexhaustible, infinite energy (apeiron).

Which substance did Anaximenes regard as primary, and what two processes does it undergo?

Air; it undergoes condensation (cooling) and rarefaction (heating).

Which element did Heraclitus identify as the earth’s primary constituent?

Fire; he is also known as "the Dark" philosopher for his cryptic style.

List the four classical elements mentioned by Heraclitus.

Fire, Water, Air, Earth.

Why did Pythagoras venerate numbers?

He believed mathematics is the best source of knowledge and that numbers explain the existence of things qualitatively and quantitatively.

What was the Sophists’ famous slogan about humanity?

“Man is the measure of all things.”

Name three major Sophist thinkers.

Gorgias, Protagoras, and Thrasymachus.

Why were the Sophists often hired by nobles and kings?

They provided rhetorical and letter-writing skills, teaching critical analysis for a fee.

Summarise Socrates’ ethical position in one sentence.

Virtue is knowledge, and people commit vices only through ignorance—thus one must ‘know thyself.’

List the two formal charges brought against Socrates.

Impiety (heresy) and corrupting Athenian youth.

How was Socrates executed?

By drinking hemlock poison.

Into what three parts does Plato divide the human individual?

Thumos (body), Epithumos/Spirit (chest or bravery), and Nous (mind).

What three classes constitute Plato’s ideal state?

Guardians/rulers, Soldiers, and Workers.

Which dialogue of Plato focuses extensively on justice?

The Republic.

What collective name is given to Aristotle’s works on logic?

The Organon (meaning “instrument”).

According to Aristotle, what must governance rest upon?

Absolute morality.

Define a sentence as used in logic.

A collection of words that conveys a complete logical meaning.

What is a proposition?

An intentional message one aims to communicate; the basic unit of meaning in logic.

Give the lecture’s definition of an argument.

A group of propositions containing premises offered as evidence for a conclusion.

What are the two indispensable components of any argument?

Premise(s) and Conclusion.

When is an argument considered valid?

When the premises logically support and correlate with the conclusion.

State the truth-condition for a logical conjunction (P • Q).

It is true only when both conjuncts P and Q are true.

State the truth-condition for a logical disjunction (P ∨ Q).

It is true if at least one of the disjuncts (P or Q) is true.

What does negation (~P) express?

The denial of a proposition; it inverts the truth-value of P.

Outline the key truth-condition for material implication (P ⊃ Q).

It is false only when P is true and Q is false; otherwise it is true.

When is a bi-conditional (P ≡ Q) true?

When P and Q share the same truth-value (both true or both false).

Provide the lecture’s concise definition of a fallacy.

A logical mistake or technical deficiency in reasoning, producing weak evidence for a claim.

List two ground rules about fallacies noted in class.

Fallacies are not lies, and they can enhance critical analysis within an argument.

What is petitio principii (begging the question)?

A fallacy in which the conclusion to be proved is simply assumed in the premises.

Describe argumentum ad baculum (appeal to force).

A fallacy where coercion or threat of sanction is used to compel acceptance of a claim.

What characterises argumentum ad hominem?

Attacking an opponent’s character instead of addressing the argument itself.

Explain argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to authority).

Relying on the opinion of an alleged expert who in fact lacks expertise in the relevant field.

What is the fallacy of suppressed evidence?

Ignoring viable alternatives or contrary facts when drawing a conclusion.