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At what age do females typically begin puberty compared to males?
Females begin puberty about 2 years earlier than males on average.
What factors influence the timing of puberty?
Culture, genetics, food supply, medical care, and the absence of a father in the household.
What are secular growth trends?
Secular growth trends refer to changes in physical development from one generation to the next.
What is the trend in the age of menarche in developed countries over the past 150 years?
In developed countries, the age of menarche has been occurring earlier, typically between 11-13 years old.
What is the typical age of menarche in developing countries?
In developing countries, menarche often occurs closer to 15 years old.
Do males follow a similar trend to females in the timing of puberty?
It is assumed that males follow a similar pattern to females in terms of the timing of puberty.
What are the risks associated with earlier puberty in females in Western countries?
Risks include a heavier appearance in cultures valuing female slenderness, increased risk of depression, negative body image, and eating disorders.
What social and behavioral risks are linked to earlier puberty in females?
Earlier puberty in females can draw sexual attention from older males, introduce them into older peer groups, and increase the risk of substance abuse, early sexual activity, and delinquency.
What are the long-term effects of earlier puberty in females?
Long-term effects are unclear—some studies show lasting issues, while others find that negative impacts fade by the late teens.
What are the mixed effects of early puberty for males?
Early puberty in males can lead to better self-esteem but also increases the risks of delinquency, substance abuse, and early sexual activity.
Are puberty rituals or rites of passage common in traditional cultures?
Yes, puberty rituals/rites of passage are common in traditional cultures for both sexes.
How is menarche often ritualized in traditional cultures?
Menarche is often ritualized and marks the start of monthly rituals or restrictions related to menstruation.
What do male puberty rituals often require in traditional cultures?
Male puberty rituals often require a show of bravery, endurance, and physical strength.
At what age does Piaget's Formal Operations stage begin?
11
What cognitive ability develops during the Formal Operations stage?
Individuals can now think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses.
What new problem-solving ability emerges in the Formal Operations stage?
Individuals can imagine a wide range of solutions to problems, even without direct experience with the issue.
What kind of thinking can individuals engage in during the Formal Operations stage?
Individuals can think abstractly and consider ideas such as justice or time.
What is Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning?
It is the process of applying scientific thinking to cognitive tasks.
What is an example of a task that involves Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning in the Formal Operations stage?
The Pendulum Problem, where individuals test hypotheses systematically to determine which factors affect the speed of a pendulum's swing.
What is one challenge to Piaget's theory regarding cognitive abilities in children?
Piaget underestimates the cognitive abilities of children, as object permanence and categorization emerge earlier than he claimed.
What behavior in toddlers challenges Piaget’s theory?
Toddlers spontaneously help others complete tasks, indicating some understanding of others' needs and goals.
What language behavior in 4-year-olds challenges Piaget’s theory?
By age 4, children use shorter, simpler sentences when talking to toddlers or babies, showing an understanding of their weaker language skills.
What does Piaget’s theory exaggerate about developmental change?
Piaget exaggerates the discontinuity of developmental change; the ability to perform mental operations develops gradually, not as an abrupt, total shift in cognitive abilities.
What is a challenge to Piaget’s claims about the stages of development?
Piaget made overly broad claims about how development unfolds, assuming that all people pass through all stages at roughly the same age.
What is the success rate for adults passing tests of Formal Operations?
40-60% of adults fail to pass tests for Formal Operations, challenging Piaget's theory.
How do people who demonstrate formal operations apply it?
People who demonstrate formal operations tend to use it for problems and situations they have the most experience or knowledge about, not widely across all situations
What did Piaget fail to consider in his theory of cognitive development?
Piaget did not consider the impact of culture and experience on cognitive development.
How might cultural differences impact Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Cultural differences might lead to variations in the timing and expression of cognitive abilities, meaning Piaget's stages might not be universally applicable across all cultures.
What did Kohlberg argue about moral reasoning?
kohlberg argued that moral reasoning follows a predictable pattern across cultures as cognitive abilities develop.
How do the contents of moral dilemmas differ across cultures?
The contents of moral dilemmas vary by culture, but the underlying structure of how people reason about moral issues remains the same.
What is Preconventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
Preconventional Reasoning, which occurs from birth through early childhood, is based on the likelihood of rewards and punishments. What is considered "right" avoids punishment or receives rewards.
What characterizes Conventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
Conventional Reasoning, which occurs in middle childhood and adolescence, is based on conforming to moral expectations of others. What is considered "right" aligns with rules established by tradition and authorities.
What is Postconventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
Postconventional Reasoning, which occurs in adolescence or adulthood, is based on independent judgment. What is considered "right" is derived from universal principles of justice and individual rights, rather than rewards, punishments, or group standards.
What is the Pre-Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?
pre-conventional - Should not steal: Heinz will go to prison.
Should steal: Heinz will be happier if he saves his wife, even if he goes to jail.
What is the Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?
conventional -Should not steal: Stealing is against the law.
Should steal: He should be a good husband and save his wife.
What is the Post-Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?
post conventional -Should not steal: The pharmacist has the right to fair compensation for his drug.
Should steal: Human life is more important than property rights.
Which of Kohlberg's stages apply cross-culturally?
Kohlberg's first two stages (Preconventional and Conventional) apply cross-culturally.
Which stage in Kohlberg's model is mainly seen in high SES individuals from Western countries?
Stage 3 (Conventional Reasoning) is mainly seen in high SES individuals from Western countries.
What issue was found with Kohlberg's original sample?
in Kohlberg's original sample, few individuals reached Stage 3, even as adults.
What population did Kohlberg’s study primarily focus on?
middle/working class American children
Do adolescents experience romantic love cross-culturally?
Yes, studies find that adolescents experience romantic love across cultures, even if they're not allowed to act on it.
What are the three categories of approaches to adolescent sexuality?
Permissive Culture
Semirestrictive Culture
Restrictive Culture
What is a Permissive Culture?
culture that encourages and expects sexual behavior in adolescence.
What is a Semirestrictive Culture?
A culture that prohibits premarital adolescent sex but doesn't enforce these rules strongly or they are easily avoided.
What is a Restrictive Culture?
A culture that places strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activities before marriage and often keeps males and females separate during adolescence.
How is female chastity viewed across cultures compared to male chastity?
Female chastity is valued more highly than male chastity across cultures, and females face more severe consequences for breaking sexual behavior rules.
How is premarital teenage pregnancy viewed across cultures?
Premarital teenage pregnancy is viewed as undesirable across cultures.
Which culture type is linked to the lowest teen pregnancy rates? Why?
Restrictive cultures are typically linked to the lowest teen pregnancy rates, likely due to stronger prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity.
When does criminal behavior rise and peak in adolescence?
Criminal behavior rises in mid-teens, peaks at 18, and then drops.
Who disproportionately commits criminal behavior?
criminal behavior is disproportionately committed by males.
How long has the pattern of crime behavior been consistent in the West?
the pattern has been consistent for the last ~150 years.
How is the frontal lobe development in adolescence?
The frontal lobe is immature in both males and females during adolescence.
How do adolescent crimes typically differ from adult crimes?
dolescent crimes are typically committed in groups, while adult crimes are usually solitary.
What is a Life-Course Persistent Delinquent?
A delinquent who shows a pattern of problems from birth and continues these problems into adulthood.
What characterizes a Life-Course Persistent Delinquent?
They are characterized by a difficult temperament, neuropsychological deficits, and high-risk environments.
What is an Adolescent-Limited Delinquent?
A delinquent who shows no problems before adolescence and whose delinquent behavior is temporary.
