PSYCH - LIFESPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - FINAL EXAM

At what age do females typically begin puberty compared to males?

 Females begin puberty about 2 years earlier than males on average.

What factors influence the timing of puberty?

Culture, genetics, food supply, medical care, and the absence of a father in the household.

What are secular growth trends?

Secular growth trends refer to changes in physical development from one generation to the next.

What is the trend in the age of menarche in developed countries over the past 150 years?

In developed countries, the age of menarche has been occurring earlier, typically between 11-13 years old.

What is the typical age of menarche in developing countries?

In developing countries, menarche often occurs closer to 15 years old.

Do males follow a similar trend to females in the timing of puberty?

• It is assumed that males follow a similar pattern to females in terms of the timing of puberty.

What are the risks associated with earlier puberty in females in Western countries?

Risks include a heavier appearance in cultures valuing female slenderness, increased risk of depression, negative body image, and eating disorders.

What social and behavioral risks are linked to earlier puberty in females?

Earlier puberty in females can draw sexual attention from older males, introduce them into older peer groups, and increase the risk of substance abuse, early sexual activity, and delinquency.

What are the long-term effects of earlier puberty in females?

• Long-term effects are unclear—some studies show lasting issues, while others find that negative impacts fade by the late teens.

What are the mixed effects of early puberty for males?

Early puberty in males can lead to better self-esteem but also increases the risks of delinquency, substance abuse, and early sexual activity.

Are puberty rituals or rites of passage common in traditional cultures?

• Yes, puberty rituals/rites of passage are common in traditional cultures for both sexes.

How is menarche often ritualized in traditional cultures?

Menarche is often ritualized and marks the start of monthly rituals or restrictions related to menstruation.

What do male puberty rituals often require in traditional cultures?

• Male puberty rituals often require a show of bravery, endurance, and physical strength.

At what age does Piaget's Formal Operations stage begin?

11

What cognitive ability develops during the Formal Operations stage?

Individuals can now think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses.

What new problem-solving ability emerges in the Formal Operations stage?

Individuals can imagine a wide range of solutions to problems, even without direct experience with the issue.

What kind of thinking can individuals engage in during the Formal Operations stage?

• Individuals can think abstractly and consider ideas such as justice or time.

What is Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning?

It is the process of applying scientific thinking to cognitive tasks.

What is an example of a task that involves Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning in the Formal Operations stage?

• The Pendulum Problem, where individuals test hypotheses systematically to determine which factors affect the speed of a pendulum's swing.

What is one challenge to Piaget's theory regarding cognitive abilities in children?

Piaget underestimates the cognitive abilities of children, as object permanence and categorization emerge earlier than he claimed.

What behavior in toddlers challenges Piaget’s theory?

Toddlers spontaneously help others complete tasks, indicating some understanding of others' needs and goals.

What language behavior in 4-year-olds challenges Piaget’s theory?

• By age 4, children use shorter, simpler sentences when talking to toddlers or babies, showing an understanding of their weaker language skills.

What does Piaget’s theory exaggerate about developmental change?

Piaget exaggerates the discontinuity of developmental change; the ability to perform mental operations develops gradually, not as an abrupt, total shift in cognitive abilities.

What is a challenge to Piaget’s claims about the stages of development?

Piaget made overly broad claims about how development unfolds, assuming that all people pass through all stages at roughly the same age.

What is the success rate for adults passing tests of Formal Operations?

40-60% of adults fail to pass tests for Formal Operations, challenging Piaget's theory.

How do people who demonstrate formal operations apply it?

People who demonstrate formal operations tend to use it for problems and situations they have the most experience or knowledge about, not widely across all situations

What did Piaget fail to consider in his theory of cognitive development?

• Piaget did not consider the impact of culture and experience on cognitive development.

How might cultural differences impact Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

• Cultural differences might lead to variations in the timing and expression of cognitive abilities, meaning Piaget's stages might not be universally applicable across all cultures.

What did Kohlberg argue about moral reasoning?

kohlberg argued that moral reasoning follows a predictable pattern across cultures as cognitive abilities develop.

How do the contents of moral dilemmas differ across cultures?

The contents of moral dilemmas vary by culture, but the underlying structure of how people reason about moral issues remains the same.

What is Preconventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

Preconventional Reasoning, which occurs from birth through early childhood, is based on the likelihood of rewards and punishments. What is considered "right" avoids punishment or receives rewards.

What characterizes Conventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

• Conventional Reasoning, which occurs in middle childhood and adolescence, is based on conforming to moral expectations of others. What is considered "right" aligns with rules established by tradition and authorities.

What is Postconventional Reasoning in Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

Postconventional Reasoning, which occurs in adolescence or adulthood, is based on independent judgment. What is considered "right" is derived from universal principles of justice and individual rights, rather than rewards, punishments, or group standards.

What is the Pre-Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?

pre-conventional - Should not steal: Heinz will go to prison.

• Should steal: Heinz will be happier if he saves his wife, even if he goes to jail.

What is the Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?

conventional -Should not steal: Stealing is against the law.

• Should steal: He should be a good husband and save his wife.

What is the Post-Conventional answer to the Heinz Dilemma (should Heinz steal the drug)?

post conventional -Should not steal: The pharmacist has the right to fair compensation for his drug.

• Should steal: Human life is more important than property rights.

Which of Kohlberg's stages apply cross-culturally?

Kohlberg's first two stages (Preconventional and Conventional) apply cross-culturally.

Which stage in Kohlberg's model is mainly seen in high SES individuals from Western countries?

Stage 3 (Conventional Reasoning) is mainly seen in high SES individuals from Western countries.

What issue was found with Kohlberg's original sample?

in Kohlberg's original sample, few individuals reached Stage 3, even as adults.

What population did Kohlberg’s study primarily focus on?

middle/working class American children

Do adolescents experience romantic love cross-culturally?

Yes, studies find that adolescents experience romantic love across cultures, even if they're not allowed to act on it.

What are the three categories of approaches to adolescent sexuality?

1. Permissive Culture

2. Semirestrictive Culture

3. Restrictive Culture

What is a Permissive Culture?

culture that encourages and expects sexual behavior in adolescence.

What is a Semirestrictive Culture?

A culture that prohibits premarital adolescent sex but doesn't enforce these rules strongly or they are easily avoided.

What is a Restrictive Culture?

A culture that places strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activities before marriage and often keeps males and females separate during adolescence.

How is female chastity viewed across cultures compared to male chastity?

Female chastity is valued more highly than male chastity across cultures, and females face more severe consequences for breaking sexual behavior rules.

How is premarital teenage pregnancy viewed across cultures?

Premarital teenage pregnancy is viewed as undesirable across cultures.

Which culture type is linked to the lowest teen pregnancy rates? Why?

Restrictive cultures are typically linked to the lowest teen pregnancy rates, likely due to stronger prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity.

When does criminal behavior rise and peak in adolescence?

Criminal behavior rises in mid-teens, peaks at 18, and then drops.

Who disproportionately commits criminal behavior?

criminal behavior is disproportionately committed by males.

How long has the pattern of crime behavior been consistent in the West?

the pattern has been consistent for the last ~150 years.

How is the frontal lobe development in adolescence?

The frontal lobe is immature in both males and females during adolescence.

How do adolescent crimes typically differ from adult crimes?

dolescent crimes are typically committed in groups, while adult crimes are usually solitary.

What is a Life-Course Persistent Delinquent?

A delinquent who shows a pattern of problems from birth and continues these problems into adulthood.

What characterizes a Life-Course Persistent Delinquent?

They are characterized by a difficult temperament, neuropsychological deficits, and high-risk environments.

What is an Adolescent-Limited Delinquent?

A delinquent who shows no problems before adolescence and whose delinquent behavior is temporary.

What is Emerging Adulthood?

 Emerging adulthood is the period between adolescence and young adulthood, typically ages 18-25, increasingly recognized in developed countries.

What roles did people in their 20s typically take on in the past?\

In the past, people in their 20s used to settle into adult roles and responsibilities like starting work, getting married, and becoming parents.

How has the age of marriage in the U.S. changed since the 1960s?

In the 1960s, adults in the U.S. typically married around ages 21-23. Today, the average age for marriage is around 28-30 years old.

Why has the average age of marriage increased in the U.S.?\

The increase is likely due to factors such as longer periods of education, greater focus on career development, and changing societal expectations about marriage and adulthood.

What was the Sexual Revolution?

The Sexual Revolution was a cultural shift in the 1960s that brought about more open attitudes toward sex, especially regarding premarital sex.

How did the FDA approval of the birth control pill in 1960 affect emerging adulthoo

The approval of the birth control pill in 1960 allowed people more control over their reproductive choices, leading to fewer unplanned pregnancies and greater freedom in sexual relationships.

How did cultural attitudes toward sex change in the 1960s?

Cultural attitudes shifted to a greater acceptance of premarital sex, making it more common for young adults to engage in sexual relationships before marriage.

 How did these social changes affect marriage?

With the ability to have sexual relationships before marriage, young adults had less pressure to marry early, reducing the motivation to settle down quickly.

How were women’s job opportunities in the 1950s and 60s?

In the 1950s and 60s, women had limited job opportunities, and it was not economically viable to remain single. Many women relied on marriage for financial stability.

 What was the role of tertiary education for women in the 1950s/60s?

Few women attended tertiary education, and it was often viewed as a way to find a husband rather than for career development.

How did social pressure to marry affect women in the past?

There was huge social pressure on women to marry, and marriage was often seen as essential for financial survival and social acceptance.

 How have women’s educational and job opportunities changed?

Women now have a wide range of educational and career options, making them less dependent on marriage for economic survival.

 How do females perform academically compared to males?

Females typically outperform males academically, which holds true across cultures and in many subjects and grade levels.

Are there still gender imbalances in some fields?

While women have equal representation in law, business, and medical degrees, fields like engineering and some STEM fields remain male-dominated.

What change has occurred regarding the social pressure to marry?

 There has been a dramatic drop in the social pressure for women to marry at a young age, giving them more freedom to focus on education and careers.

How was adulthood viewed in the 1950s?

 In the 1950s, adulthood was seen as positive. Adolescents were eager to "settle down" and assume adult roles like marriage, parenthood, and owning a home.

What were considered desirable and obtainable achievements in the 1950s?

In the 1950s, marriage, parenthood, large families, homeownership, and job stability were viewed as important goals.

How have cultural and economic shifts changed views on marriage and family?

 Cultural and economic shifts have made early marriage, parenthood, and large families less desirable, with people now preferring to delay these milestones.

How has the typical career structure changed?

Instead of "climbing the ladder" in one organization, people now tend to move between several jobs, reflecting changes in the workforce and career expectations.

How do housing prices and student loans impact adulthood?

 High housing prices and student loans make it harder for young adults to achieve traditional markers of adulthood, such as owning a home or securing financial independence.

How are traditional adult roles viewed by emerging adults

Traditional adult roles like marriage and parenthood are now often seen as a loss of freedom and opportunities, with many preferring to explore life before settling down.

 How does cultural variation affect emerging adulthood?

 Emerging adulthood varies across cultures, with different expectations and experiences depending on the country’s values and structure.

Where is emerging adulthood the longest?

Emerging adulthood lasts the longest in individualistic European countries, where independence and personal exploration are highly valued.

How is identity exploration different in collectivistic countries?

In collectivistic countries, identity exploration is constrained by social obligations to others, especially parents, leading to narrower boundaries for personal exploration.

How do parental opinions affect emerging adults in collectivistic cultures?

In collectivistic cultures, parental opinions on work, education, relationships, and living location hold more weight for emerging adults compared to individualistic cultures.

What is considered the most important criterion for becoming an adult in the US and Europe?

 In the US and Europe, financial independence is often considered the most important factor for becoming an adult.

What is considered the most important criterion for becoming an adult in East Asian cultures?

In East Asian cultures, the ability to support parents financially is often rated as one of the most important criteria for becoming an adult.

How has globalization affected developing countries?

Globalization of the world economy has led to significant shifts in developing countries, influencing how emerging adulthood is experienced.

How is emerging adulthood changing for the urban middle class in developing countries?

In the urban middle class of developing countries, more people are obtaining tertiary education and marrying later.

What is the difference in emerging adulthood between urban and rural areas in developing countries?

Urban areas offer more opportunities for education, later marriage, and employment, making emerging adulthood more likely. In contrast, rural areas see youth moving quickly from adolescence to young adulthood, marrying earlier, having less education, and fewer job options outside of agriculture.

What challenges do youth in rural areas face compared to urban youth?

Youth in rural areas tend to marry earlier, have less access to education, and face fewer job opportunities outside of agriculture, limiting their experience of emerging adulthood.

What physical changes occur by emerging adulthood?

By emerging adulthood, individuals have reached adult height, and puberty is complete.

 How does strength and endurance change in emerging adulthood?

Strength and endurance continue to improve during emerging adulthood, reaching peak levels.

 When does the peak of physical functioning occur?

The peak of physical functioning typically occurs in the 20s.

When do people typically experience peak performance in sports?

Peak performance in most sports generally happens in the 20s.

What is the risk of illness like during emerging adulthood?

Emerging adults have the lowest risk of illness compared to other life stages.

What are the most common causes of health issues during emerging adulthood?

Most health issues in emerging adulthood stem from behavioral factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and risky behaviors.

What is Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome?

Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome is a pattern where individuals sleep much longer on weekends and holidays than on work or school days, which impedes academic or job performance and leads to a lingering sense of sleepiness.

What is sleep debt?

Sleep debt occurs when individuals sleep less than needed during the week and try to make up for lost sleep on time off, which negatively affects cognitive and emotional functioning.

How do poor sleep habits impact mental health?

Poor sleep habits contribute to the risk of depression and anxiety, and they also impair memory, attention, and critical thinking.

How does morningness/eveningness change over the lifespan?

Children tend to be morning people (morningness), but as they reach adolescence, they shift toward being evening people (eveningness), with this tendency peaking around ages 20-21.

How do schedules set by older adults create issues for college students?

Schedules set by older adults, who tend to be more inclined toward morningness, can create issues for college students who have a natural preference for eveningness, leading to misalignment in sleep patterns.

What is social control?

Social control refers to the restraints on behavior that are imposed by social obligations and relationships, such as family, friends, and societal expectations.

How does social control change in emerging adulthood?

In emerging adulthood, social control is low, especially parental control, which contributes to a higher rate of risky behavior.