The National Convention, the Jacobins and the Terror, 1793–94

What pressures caused the Terror in 1793?

War, invasion, hunger, inflation, sabotage, fanaticism, revolutionary idealism, and fear that the gains of the Revolution would be lost.

When did the Revolutionary War begin, and when did it gain new momentum?

The war began in 1792 and gained new momentum in early 1793.

Which countries formed the First Coalition against France?

Austria, Prussia, Britain, Holland, Spain and Piedmont-Sardinia.

When did France declare war on Britain and Holland?

February 1793.

What happened at the Battle of Neerwinden on 18 March 1793?

French forces were defeated by the Austrians.

What happened to General Dumouriez in April 1793?

Girondin general Dumouriez defected to the Austrians, increasing fears of treason within France.

What triggered the Vendée uprising in March 1793?

The levy of 300,000 conscripts for the war angered the peasantry. Opposition was intensified by anger over the treatment of Catholic clergy and the sale of biens nationaux.

What did many Vendée rebels want to restore?

They wanted to restore the monarchy and the Bourbon dynasty, represented by the white flag.

What happened at Pont-Charrault on 19 March 1793?

Poorly organised and ill-disciplined revolutionary forces were overwhelmed and forced to withdraw from Chalonnes.

What happened at Cholet during the Vendée uprising?

Over 10,000 rebels attacked and overran the National Guard defending the town.

What was the political struggle in the Convention in April 1793?

The Girondins and Jacobins (the Mountain) struggled for control of the Convention and over the direction of the Revolution.

How did the Girondins attack the Jacobins in April 1793?

They attacked Jean-Paul Marat and sent him for trial before the Revolutionary Tribunal.

What newspaper did Marat edit?

L'Ami du peuple, in which he published radical attacks and called for the arrest and trial of leading Girondins.

What happened to Marat at his trial on 24 April 1793?

He was acquitted after the jury and judges took only one day to clear him of all charges.

What happened during the journée of 2 June 1793?

Around 80,000 National Guardsmen and sans-culottes surrounded the Convention and forced a vote for the arrest of 29 Girondin deputies.

Why was the journée of 2 June 1793 significant?

It removed the Girondins from political power and strengthened the Jacobins and the sans-culottes.

Who assassinated Marat, and when?

Charlotte Corday assassinated Marat on 13 July 1793.

Why did Charlotte Corday assassinate Marat?

Corday was a Girondin sympathiser who hoped killing Marat would weaken the radical revolutionary cause.

What was the effect of Marat's assassination?

Rather than weakening the Jacobins, it made Marat a revolutionary martyr and strengthened the Jacobin cause.

What happened to Charlotte Corday after Marat's assassination?

She was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal on 17 July 1793, found guilty and executed by guillotine the same day.

What was the Federalist revolt?

It was a reaction against the radical Jacobin direction of the Revolution, especially after the fall of the Girondins.

Was the Federalist revolt counter-revolutionary?

No. It was mainly anti-Jacobin: many Federalists opposed Jacobin radicalism and violence rather than opposing the Revolution itself.

How widespread was the Federalist revolt?

60 of France's 85 departments experienced disturbances.

Where were the most serious Federalist uprisings?

Bordeaux, Marseilles, Lyon and Toulon.

What happened at Toulon in 1793?

Royalist rebels invited British and Spanish forces into Toulon. Government forces besieged and recaptured the town on 19 December, with Napoleon Bonaparte prominent among them.

What happened to Lyon after its revolt?

On 12 October 1793, Couthon announced a decree to wipe Lyon off the map and rename it Ville-Affranchie. Around 600 houses were demolished and nearly 2,000 people were executed.

Who criticised the violence at Lyon?

Robespierre criticised the excesses and later demanded that Collot d'Herbois and Fouché justify the severity of their actions.

Who were the Enragés, and what did they demand?

Led by Jacques Roux, the Enragés demanded higher taxes on the rich and the execution of grain hoarders to tackle poverty and starvation.

Who were the Hébertists, and what did they want?

Led by Jacques René Hébert, they supported continued radicalisation, stronger action against enemies of the Revolution and greater support for sans-culottes demands.

What newspaper did Hébert edit?

Le Père Duchesne.

What was the revolutionary Paris Commune?

It was a radical body headed by Hébert that channelled sans-culottes dissatisfaction into pressure for more revolutionary action.

What was the levée en masse?

Declared on 23 August 1793, it introduced total war and mobilised nearly half a million unmarried men aged 18–25 for the war effort.

Who organised the levée en masse?

Lazare Carnot of the Committee of Public Safety organised the mobilisation with great efficiency.

What was the General Maximum?

Introduced on 29 September 1793, it placed maximum prices on basic commodities to control prices and appease the sans-culottes.

What was the Committee of General Security?

Established in October 1792, it acted as a police committee overseeing revolutionary justice within Paris.

When and why was the Revolutionary Tribunal established?

It was established on 10 March 1793 to try suspects accused of counter-revolutionary activity in Paris.

When was the Committee of Public Safety established, and what were its powers?

Established on 6 April 1793, it could appoint and dismiss commanders, oversee internal defence, issue arrest warrants and sanction decrees. Its powers were broader than those of the Committee of General Security.

How did the Committee of Public Safety change in July 1793?

After the purge of the Girondins, it was expanded to 12 members on 10 July 1793 and became largely Jacobin, with more radical members.

Who were key members of the Committee of Public Safety?

Robespierre, Saint-Just, Georges Couthon, Lazare Carnot and Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois.

What was the Law of Suspects?

Passed on 17 September 1793, it allowed the arrest and imprisonment of anyone considered suspicious, including nobles, émigrés, relatives of émigrés and people who had not clearly supported the Revolution.

How many people were arrested under the Law of Suspects?

An estimated 300,000 people were arrested, with around 10,000–12,000 executions and many more deaths in prison.

What were representatives on mission?

Convention deputies sent to the provinces and armies to oversee conscription, identify counter-revolutionaries and enforce revolutionary policy.

Which representatives on mission became notorious for extreme violence?

Jean-Baptiste Carrier was responsible for mass drownings of suspects in the Loire, while Collot d'Herbois and Fouché oversaw brutal executions at Lyon.

What were watch committees?

Committees in communes and departments that monitored foreigners, émigrés and suspicious individuals and drew up lists of suspects.

What was the Law of Frimaire?

Passed on 5 December 1793, it centralised power in the Committee of Public Safety, allowing it to purge local officials and control revolutionary armies outside Paris.

Why did the government introduce the Law of Frimaire?

It feared the unrestrained radicalism of revolutionary armies and local officials acting without central control.

Who was Fouquier-Tinville?

He was the chief prosecutor of the Revolutionary Tribunal and played a major role in prosecuting those accused of counter-revolution.

How severe was the Revolutionary Tribunal?

Between March 1793 and June 1794, around 85% of those tried were executed. Most defendants were ordinary people from the Third Estate rather than nobles or clergy.

What was de-Christianisation?

It was an attempt to remove Christianity and traditional Catholic influence from revolutionary France and replace them with revolutionary beliefs and practices.

What happened during the Festival of Reason?

On 10 November 1793, Hébert organised the Festival of Reason, and Notre Dame in Paris was transformed into a Temple of Reason.

Why did Robespierre oppose de-Christianisation?

He viewed it as immoral and disorderly. Robespierre was not an atheist and believed religion could provide moral order.

What was the French Republican calendar?

Created by Gilbert Romme and introduced in 1793, it was backdated to September 1792 as Year I and removed references to Christian saints and traditions.

Who were the Indulgents?

A faction led by Danton and Camille Desmoulins that opposed the continuation of the Terror and called for greater leniency and de-escalation.

What did Camille Desmoulins publish?

Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper that called for an end to the Terror.

What happened to the Hébertists in March 1794?

Hébert and the Hébertists were arrested on 10 March and later executed after being accused of plotting an armed uprising.

What happened to Danton and the Indulgents in April 1794?

Danton and the Indulgents were arrested on 30 March, given a show trial without proper defence and executed on 5 April.

Why was the purge of the Hébertists and Indulgents important?

It removed the major factional opposition to Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, but it also left Robespierre more exposed and associated with the Terror.

What was the Cult of the Supreme Being?

Introduced by Robespierre in June 1794, it was a controlled state religion intended to provide a moral alternative to both atheism and Catholicism.

Why did the Cult of the Supreme Being cause opposition?

Catholics saw it as an abomination, while atheists and sans-culottes saw it as another attack on their beliefs. Many also saw it as evidence that Robespierre was becoming power-crazed.

What was the Police Bureau?

Created by the Committee of Public Safety in March 1794, it gave Robespierre a powerful tool for denouncing and arresting political enemies.

What did the Law of 22 Prairial change?

Passed on 10 June 1794, it removed key rights of the accused, including defence counsel and cross-examination, and allowed conviction without material evidence beyond moral conviction. The Tribunal effectively had only two verdicts: acquittal or death.

What was the Great Terror?

The Great Terror lasted from the Law of 22 Prairial on 10 June 1794 until Robespierre's fall on 27/28 July 1794.

How many people were guillotined in Paris during the Great Terror?

More than 1,594 people were guillotined during roughly six weeks, over 50% higher than the number executed during the previous 14 months combined.

Who was Saint-Just?

A young, radical ally of Robespierre on the Committee of Public Safety, Saint-Just was known for his powerful oratory and uncompromising commitment to revolutionary virtue and Terror.

Why did Robespierre's support weaken in June and July 1794?

Economic discontent continued through falling wages and rising prices. Divisions developed within the Committee of Public Safety, while deputies increasingly feared they might become targets of the Terror.

What happened within the Committee of Public Safety in June 1794?

Divisions increased, and Robespierre and Saint-Just began attending meetings less often, increasing suspicion among their colleagues.

What happened in Robespierre's speech of 26 July 1794?

Robespierre warned that there were more traitors within the Convention but refused to name them. This made deputies fear that they themselves might be targeted.

What happened on 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor)?

The Convention turned against Robespierre and arrested him and his allies, including Saint-Just, Couthon and Augustin Robespierre.

How did Robespierre die?

After being wounded in the jaw during an attempted suicide/being shot, Robespierre was recaptured and executed by guillotine on 28 July 1794 with Saint-Just, Couthon, Augustin Robespierre and 18 others.

Who were the Thermidorians?

The Thermidorians were the deputies who overthrew Robespierre and controlled the government after his fall.

What changes did the Thermidorean government make?

It weakened the Revolutionary Tribunal, purged Jacobin influence, closed the Jacobin Club, released thousands of prisoners, abolished the Cult of the Supreme Being and restored more moderate political control.

What happened to former Robespierre allies after Thermidor?

Former allies such as Billaud-Varenne and Collot d'Herbois were targeted as other Committee members tried to distance themselves from the Terror. Many were sentenced to exile, including to Guyana, or faced death.