Stm 008

Recombinant DNA

Is a artificial DNA (Can Also be Written as rDNA)

Recombinant DNA Technology

The combination of different genetic materials!(DNA) From different sources is reffered to as ?

Genetic Engineering

Recombinant Dna technology is popularly known as?

1968 Swiss Microbiologist Werner Arber

Recombinant dna emerged with the discovery of restriction enzymes in the year? And who is the biologist

DNA Extraction

Whats the first step in Recom Dna technology? Scientist must need to extract the desired organism, takes a series of step to remove the dna

Gene Cloning

2nd step is Used blank to separate the single gene of interest from the rest of the genes extracted and make thousands of copies of it.

Gene Design

3rd step, once a gene has been cloned, genetic engineers begin designing the gene to work once inside a different organism. It is done in test tube and cutting the gene apart with restriction enzymes

Restriction Enzyme

cuts the plasmid and the gene

DNA Ligase

Seals the dna into the opening created by Restriction Enzyme

Transformation

4th step, new gene is inserted into some of the crlls using various technique

Gene gun

Agrobacterium

Microfiber

Electroporqtion

To transport fene genes

Main goal of each of the methods in transformation

Backcross Breeding

Final part pf producing a genetically engineered crop is?

Dna extraction

Gene cloning

Gene design

Transformation

Backcross breeding

Process of Recombinant DNA

Food Industry

Application of Recombinant dna

First applicationc is ?is genetically enegineree with recombinant dna to express enzymes that promote b Carotene biosynthesis

Pharmaceutical Industry

2nd is? Example is recombinant human growth hormone that is used to support normal hrowth and development for patients with malfunctions in the pituitary gland

Medical Research

Third one is, example is the antibody test that uses recombinant HIv protein to measure antibodies in the body that proliferate when there is hiv infection

Agricultural Industry

The last one is commerical crops, such as soy, maize, sorghum, canola, alfalfa and cotton are grown with recombinant dna that increases resistance to herbicides used in the agricultural processes.

DNA library

Collection of dna fragments that make up the entire genome of particular organism

Restriction Endonucleases

Library of dna fragments results from the use of

Geologic Time

Is the extensive interval pf tome occupied by the geologic history of esrth.

James Hutton 1700

Father of geology

1. Darwin's Theory: Natural Selection

Theory of gradualism

Theory of james hutton

Eons

Are the largest division

Eras

Eons Followed by ?

Periods

After eras, followed by?

Epochs

After periods, finally the? Smallest division of the four

Pre cambrian, Paleozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic eras.

How many era do we have?

Pre cambrian and fungi, algae and sponges

Oldest era is the? Time before cambrian, and the organism that thought to live 5 bollion years ago are?

Paleozoic Era

Cambrian, ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian

Next to pre cambrian is, it has 6 periods which are ?

Age of invertebrates

Age of fishes

Age of amphibians

What is the specific ages of Paleozoic era,

Mesozoic Era

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous

Next era from paleozoic era, is the age of reptiles, it has three periods, before the mesozoic era ended and before the cenozoic era came, Dinosaurs have vanished

Cretaceous Period

What period did dinosaurs vanished

Reptiles

Are distinguised by having dry scaly skin and typically laying soft shelled eggs on land like crocodiles, turtles, etc.

Cenozoic

Humans: 1 Million years ago

Mammals: 65 Million years ago

Biofeature: Dominance of human

Biofeature: herbs and grasses, modern mammals and birds.

age of humans, Quatermary Period (Holocene, Pleistocene) biofeatures: O

age of mammals, tertiary period (pliocene, miocene, oligocene, eocene, paleocene) biofeatures:

Mesozoic

Age of reptiles, biofeatures:

Archean Eon

4.0 Billion to 2.5 billion years ago

Paleocene

Beginning of Cenozoic era

Quaternary Period

Dominance of humans

Tertiary period

Herbs and grasses, modern mammals and birds

Cretaceous Period 130 MYA

Extinction of dinosaurs

Jurassic Period 180 MYA

First flowering plante, first birds

Triassic period

Dinosaurs are dominante; first mammals occured

Permian Period

And carboniferous period

360 MYA

Amphibians are dominant, indects, non-vascular plants, extinction of trilobites, forest, first

Devonian Period 400 MYA

Fishes are dominant, emergence of the first land plants, first amphibians

Silurian Period 430 MYA

Fish, first anthropods (insects), mollusks, invertebrates (example include insects, crabs, lobsters, snails, clams, octopuses, starfish, sea urchins, jellyfish, and worms)

Ordovician period 475 MYA

Corals

Cambrian Period 600 MYA

Trilobites (Paradoxides pinus)

Proterozoic Period

Archean Period 5 billion years ago

Algae, sponges, fungi

Evolution

Process of change by which organism have acquired their distinguishing characteristics

Can be prov

Fossils

Relics or impressions of ancient organism, are tound in layers (strata) sedimentary rocks and provide solid evidence

4.6 billion years

Age of earth

Anatomical evidence

Used to determine ancestry among organisms, have anatomical similarities

Homologous structure

Different organism are inherited from common ancestor. They are similar in morphology but different in function

Analogous structure

Are inherited from different ancestor from different ancestor but living in the same habitat. These structurees are superficially similar but anatomically dissimilar doing the same function

Vestigial structure

Are remains of a structure that is no longer functional but show common ancestry. Examples or coccyx/tail bone and appendix in human, pelvic bone in snake

Embryological Evidence

Scientist observed that at some point during the development process, embryos of many different animals appeared so similar that it was difficult to tell them apart.

During deveopment. Invertebrates have post anal tails

Biochemical Evidence

It provides evidence to suppprt the idea thay if species have hanged over time then the genes that determine their characteristics should have also changed

Almost all specis uses DNA ATP ENZYMES

Bat

Horse human

Bird seal cat

Example of homologua structure

Jean baptiste Lamarck

french naturalist who was born on august 1 1744 in picardy, france, he was interested in plants when we was a soldier so he started his scientific career as botanist.

Theory of need

believed that organisms change because they need to

Theory of use and diuse

believed that organisms could change the size or shape of organs by using them or not using them.
like how giraffes eat leaves in trees by eventually stretching their neck.

Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Traits

changes happened during the lifetime of parents will be passed to the offspiring..

August Weismann

who disproved lamarck’s theory? he did it 20-22nd generation

1809-1882

all species of organism arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variation that increase the individual’s ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

Darwinism

Charles darwin and said that no two individuals are exactly alike

-overproduction
-variations
-survival of the fittest (Adaptation)

Natural Selection

New species are formed (Speciation)’

but failed the source of variation

Hugo De Vries

Theory of Mutation (1889)

hypothesized that the characteristics were transmitted via some sort of particle that was given in the offspring by the parents. it was dubbed as pangene that now known as gene…

1. Darwin's Theory: Natural Selection

Main Idea: Life changes over time because the "strongest" (best adapted) survive and have babies

1. Darwin's Theory: Natural Selection

• Overproduction: Lots of babies are born, but not all survive.

• Struggle: Living things compete for food, space, etc.

• Variation: Everyone is a little different.

• Survival of the Fittest: The best variations help an organism survive and reproduce.

• Natural Selection: The environment "chooses" who survives.

• New Species: Over time, small changes add up, creating new species.

2. de Vries' Theory: Mutations

• Mutations: Changes in genes that cause new traits.

• Genes: The "instructions" passed from parents to offspring.

• New Species: Mutations can create new species quickly.

• Evolutionary Change: Mutations are a cause of evolution.

Connection to Darwin: de Vries' work helped explain how variations happen, which Darwin didn't know.

• Darwin: "The best survive and pass on their traits."

• de Vries: "Changes (mutations) in genes create new traits."

• take note of this

Microevolution

Involves changes that occur within species in short periods of time as populations go through natural selection. In this pattern of change, organisms with useful traits survive, and those without useful traits die. This trait is then passed on to the next generation.

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF EVOLUTION

• Natural Selection

• Genetic Drift

• Mutation

• Gene Flow / Migration

Genetic Drift

Populations of organisms constantly change and adapt to their environment. Drastic changes in environmental conditions can sometimes cause drastic changes in the gene pool of the population. Genetic drift occurs when chance events cause changes in frequencies of alleles in a population.

Natural Selection

introduced by Charles Darwin in the topic discussed yesterday. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. For example, if a member of a species developed a functional advantage (e.g., it grew wings and learned to fly), its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members. Those who fit into the environment well, survive.

Microevolution:

• Small changes happen within a species over time.

• Organisms with helpful traits survive, and those without helpful traits die.

• Traits that help survival are passed to the next generation.

Four Fundamental Forces of Evolution:

• Natural Selection: The environment "chooses" the traits that help organisms survive and reproduce. (Example: Animals with wings flying to escape predators.)

• Genetic Drift: Random events change the population’s gene pool. (Example: A storm wipes out part of the population, leaving only certain traits.)

• Mutation: Changes in DNA create new traits. These can sometimes benefit survival.

• Gene Flow / Migration: Movement of genes between populations.

• Evolution happens because of these four forces.

take note

Mutation

This is a permanent alteration in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's genome. It can occur due to environmental factors (e.g., UV radiation from the sun) or mistakes during DNA replication in cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) cannot be passed on to the next generation.

Gene Flow - Also known as gene migration

this refers to the transfer of alleles or genes between populations. It can lead to changes in allele frequencies when organisms move in or out of a population, significantly affecting genetic diversity.

• Mutation:

  • A permanent change in an organism's DNA sequence.

  • Causes:

    • Environmental factors like UV radiation.

    • Errors during DNA replication.

  • Somatic mutations (in non-reproductive cells) cannot be inherited.

• Gene Flow:

  • The exchange of genes between populations through migration.

  • Changes allele frequencies and enhances genetic diversity.

take note

Two-Kingdom System:

• Plantae

• Animalia

Three-Kingdom System:

• Plantae

• Animalia

• Protista

Aristotle

first classified organisms into plants and animals (Two-Kingdom System). This system didn't account for microscopic organisms, only those visible to the naked eye.

Carolus Linnaeus

developed the system further, but unicellular organisms were arbitrarily assigned to one of the two kingdoms.

origin of species

is from darwin

Two-Kingdom System:

• Categories: Plantae and Animalia.

Three-Kingdom System:

Protista

• Aristotle: Two-Kingdom System.

• Carolus Linnaeus: Refined the system but left gaps.

• Ernst Haeckel (1866): Introduced Protista to address these gaps

Contributions of Key Figures:

what era does dominance of human occur

Anthropocene