cognitive psych exam 2

i like fsu for fun and not for school. you deadass couldnt pay me to be a cognitive psychologist

What are the 3 steps of memory?

acquisition, storage, and retrieval

What are the issues with the framework or memory?

Steps of memory are interconnected. New learning is grounded in previously stored knowledge - acquisition and storage work together. Learning depends on how information will be later retrieved - acquisition and retrieval work together.

What is sensory memory?

Very briefly (<1 second) stores sensory information close to its original form. Iconic memory = visual inputs, echoic memory = auditory inputs

Sperling Sensory Memory Study (1960)

Condition 1 (full/free recall): shown a box of letters for 50 ms and asked to recall as many as possible (participants were only able to recall 4-5 letters total). Condition 2 (partical recall): shown the box of letters for 50ms and asked to recall a specific cued row (participants were able to recall about 3 letters in each row, no matter the row that was cued)

What is short-term memory?

A memory storage system that holds small amounts of information for later use/ Information lasts about 20-30 seconds. Requires attention and hard work to maintain

What is long-term memory?

A relatively permanent storage of information (is stable and nearly limitless)

Updates to the modal memory model:

Sensory memory plays a much smaller role. Short-term memory (STM) is now separate from something known as working memory (WM - memories in short-term are actively being worked on). and Working memory is a status, NOT a place.

What is working memory?

A dynamic and active system where information is held and manipulated. Active ideas or thoughts are “worked on”. For example, taking notes, and reading comprehension

What was the key finding of Sperling’s (1960) partial report method of sensory memory?

Participants recalled nearly all letters from a cued row, showing that iconic memory is limited

In the past, working memory was likened to a storage container that holds information for a short period of time. Which of the following best explains why this anology is problematic?

The container analogy is too static since WM is capable of more than short-term storage

What statement about working memory is true?

It differs from long term memory in how easy one can access the stored items

What is the Serial Position Effect?

Items at the beginning and end of a list are more memorable

What is the Primacy Effect?

Earlier/first words are more likely to be remembered

What is the Recency Effect?

Later/last words are more likely to be remembered

Explain more of the recency effect:

Contains material you just “worked on”. WM is limited in size and words get bumped out to make room for most recent words

Explain more of the primacy effect:

Words at the beginning are the focus and do not need divided attention. Early words have a greater chance of being transferred into long term memory

Testing primacy and recency:

Manipulation of working memory should affect the recall of recency items (but not earlier items) → early items should not be affected because long term memory does not depend on the current activity → slowing down list presentation should improve recall for all items in long term memory

What is the digit span task?

A test where you are presented with a series of numbers and asked to recall as many as possible. The list increases until memory fails. The average capacity is 7 +/- 2 items (Miller’s Magic Number)

What is chunking?

The ability to condense information. This helps to reduce the working memory load but does not increase capacity.

What is the operation span task? (OSPAN task)

Measure of working memory capacity (WMC) - a measure of a person’s abilities to store materials while simultaneously working on others

What does working memory strongly correlate with?

Reading comprehension tests/tasks, reasoning tests, and standardized tests. These correlations are NOT evident with the digit span task

Where is working memory?

WM is dynamic. Theorists argue that working memory is NOT a place at all (no specific brain location is involved). Instead, it is an active system associated with many different sites

How is working memory divided?

Baddeley’s WM System: central executive → rehearsal loop, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad → memory

What is the function of central executive?

Governs attention, selection, and a sequence of thoughts

What is the Articulatory Rehearsal Loop?

A place for maintainng and manipulating verbal information. Subvocalization - “silent speech” to launch rehearsal loop + Phonological buffer - holds recent auditory information

What is the visuopatial buffer?

A holding place for mental images

What is the function of the episodic buffer?

Helps organize information chronologically

Peter has a higher working memory capacity than Josh. Given previous correlational evidence, who would you expect to perform better on standardized tests (such as intelligence tests)?

Peter

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A mechanical process of rehearsal where items are continually cycled through working memory (to get them to long term memory)

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A relational process of rehearsal in which someone thinks about connections among ideas? VIt is a vastly superior type of rehearsal and leads to greater long-term benefits

What is incidental learning?

Learning in the absence of any intention to learn. Ex: learning vocabulary from a TV show

What is intentional learning?

Learning that is deliberate, with an expectation that memory would be tested later. Ex: learning vocabulary from studying flashcards for a test

Hyde and Jenkins (1969)

Condition 1: heard a list of words and were told to remember as many as possible. Condition 2: heard the same list of words but did not know thye would be tested. Some were told to determine if the words consisted of the letter “e”, some were told to count the # of letters in each words, and some were told to consider each word and rate how pleasant they sounded.

What were the results of Hyde and Jenkins experiment?

Poor performance for those told to find the “e” and count the ltter conditions, but better for pleasant condition. The “pleasant” incidental condition was the same as intentional condition. The intention to learn is not the only important factor in memory!!

Craik and Tulving (1975) Exp. 1-3

Paradigm: participants were led to engage in incidental learning (i.e., they did not know their memory would be tested). Some did “shallow level processing” - determine if words presented was uppercase vs. lowercase. Some did “moderate level processing” - determine if words presented each rhymes with another target word. and some did “deep level processing” - determine if words would fit in a particular sentence.

What were the findings of Craik and Tulvings experiment? (exp 1-3)

Huge effect of level of processing. Deeper processing (more attention to meaning) leads to better memory. The intention to learn adds a little but the manner of engagement is what matters the most

How does deep processing work?

Memory connections are like library cataloging - connections help make information more findable by allowing one memory to trigger another (and so on and so on)

Craik and Tulving (1975) Exp. 7

Paradigm: participants were shown a word and then a sentence with one word left out. Their task was to decide if the word fit in that sentence

What were the findings of Craik and Tulvings experiment 7?

More complex sentences led to greater potential for memory connections. calls other thoughts to mind which can each be connected to the target

retrieval paths: a connection or series of connections

For most recall tests, the transfer of items into long term storage is best facilitated by which type of rehearsal?

Elaborative

A student wishes to memorize an essay so that he will be able to recall the content later, What would likely be the least helpful to him?

idk we”ll comeBACK TO THIS

What is Explicit Mmeory?

Knowledge we are aware of. Involves conscious effort. It is declarative - includes memory of specific facts, dates, and events.. There are two types of explicit memory, semantic and episodic

What is episodic memory?

Consists of a person’s past experiences and includes information about the time and place the experiences occurred. Is also known as autobiographical memory. Ex: remembering your wedding day

What is semantic memory?

Consists of a person’s general knowledge of facts about the world. Ex: knowing that George Washington was the first president of the United States

What is implicit memory?

Knowledge that we are not aware of knowing. Does not require conscious effort. Is non-declarative - includes memory where behavior is affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it. There are two types of implicit memory, procedural and associative

What is procedural memory?

Consists of knowing how to do things. Ex: how to ride a bike. you never forget!

What is associative memory?

Consists of knowing that one stimulus predicts another. Affects behavior and/or elicits a response. Ex: a dog hearing the treat bag, so they come running

What is NOT true of long term memory?

Exposure is enough for LTM storage

If someone asks you who is running for president, you will answer from your ___ memory. If someone asks who you voted for in the last election, you could answer from your ___ memory

semantic, episodic

What is context-dependent memory?

Where you are during encoding impacts retrieval. Ex: Godden and Baddeley. Divers learned on land or in water, were tested on land or in water.

What is context reinstatement?

Recreating the context present during learning improves recollection. Leads to the same psychological context. Ex: Smith (1979) - Those tested in different room who reimagined the context performed just as well.

Because of the effect of context-dependent learning, students might find it most beneficial to do what?

Prepare for exams under conditions similar to the test conditions

A detective asks a witness to close her eyes and picture the night of the robbery (i.e., what she saw, heard and felt). What technique is the detective asking the witness to use?

Context reinstatement

What are nodes?

Units within an associative network that represent a single idea or combined concept. Tied together by associative links or carriers of activation. Activation of them leads to spreading activation: activation travels from one node to another via links

What is the lexical-decision task?

A task where participants are shown strings of letters and must indicate whether or not they are words or nonwords

What is semantic priming?

A process in which activation of an idea in memory causes activation to spread to other ideas related to the first in meaning. Responses were faster if the words were semantically related (priming of words occurred)

What is the correct description of how a lexical-decision atsk operates?

Participants decide whether a letter string is a word or a nonword

Participants that complete a lexical decision task typically respond faster to word pairs like BONE-DOG than to DOCTOR-DOG. What does this difference suggest?

Related words can activate each other in memory (making them easier to recognize)

What is recall?

A task of memory retrieval in which the person attempting to remember something must come up with the desired materials. Related to source memory. Relies heavily on memory connections - can you remember the words to that song? where were you last saturday?

What is recognition?

A task of memory retrieval in which the items to be remembered are presented and a person must determine whether is was encountered in some earlier circumstance. Based on feelings of familiarity - is this the correct song you were thinking of? did you go here last saturday?

What is familiarity?

The subjective feeling or objective fact that one has encountered a stimulus before. Related more to recognition - “this feels familiar, so I must have seen this stimulus before”

What is source memory?

Enables a person to recollect the episode in which the learning of something took place (or the time and place where the particular stimulus was encountered). Related more to recall - “I saw this word in my textbook in chapter 7”

Are familiarlity and source memory dependent or independent?

They are INDEPENDENT! You can have one without the other.

Familiarity without source memory:

I know I have seen this actor before, but I cannot place him. Whre is he from?

Source memory without familiarity:

That person looks just like my father, but I do not feel like he is familiar at all

What is remember/know distinction?

A distinction between two experiences a person can have when remembering something. If you remember having encountered a stimulus before (you can usually offer information about it) → recall → source memory

if you simply KNOW that you have encountered a stimulus before → recognition → familiarity

What happens with the hippocampus regarding remember/know distinction?

Hippocampus activity during REMEMBER judgements. Subsequent recollection effects. If the hippocampus was especially activated during encoding, then later on the participant was likely to recollect having seen that stimulus

What happens with the parahippocampus regarding remember/know distinction?

Parahippocampus activity during KNOW judgements. Subsequent familiarity effects. If the rhinal cortex was especially activated during encoding, then the stimulus was likely to seem familiar when viewed later on

What is an example of familiarity guiding your actions on a test?

You take a multiple choice test and struggle with question 16, but you think you have seen option D before, so you assume that is the correct answer

George says to himself, ““I caanot figure out where I have seen that person before, but I know I have!” What is he demonstrating?

Familiarity but no source memory

What is explicit memory testing?

A form of memory testing in which participants are explicitly asked to remember some previous event. Ex: recall and recognition tasks

What is indirect memory testing?

A form of memory testing in which participants are not told that their memory will be tested. Ex: Lexical decision task or word stem completion

What is word stem completion?

A task in which participants are given the beginning of a word and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided

What is the illusion of truth?

An effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar end up seeming more plausible. Ex: Begg et al. (1985) experiment: repeated sentences were judged as being more credible. Can lead to a lot of political misinformation (i.e., propaganda flooding and media saturation)

What is retrograde amnesia?

The inability to access old memories or memories prior to point of the brain injury. Loss of memory BEFORE the moment of injury

What is anterograde amnesia?

The inability to make new memories after the point of the brain injury. Loss of memory AFTER the moment of injury

What is Korsakoff’s syndrome?

A syndrome characterized by dense anterograde amnesia (often precipitated by malnutrition in long-term alcoholics)

Disruption of explicit memory in anterograde amnesia:

Report from claparede (1911-1951) - shook hands with Korsakoff’s syndrome patient (but hid a pin in his hand causing a painful poke). Patient did not remember the episode yet refused to shake his hand

Case of clive wearing:

Global amnesia (both retrograde and anterograde) -

intact semantic memory → that he has and loves his wife

disrupted episodic memory → cannot remember when he last saw her

What is double disassociation?

Occurs when two memory systems or types can be impaired independently of each other

What statement best expresses the phenomenon known as the “illusion of truth”?

Familiarity increases credIbility

Current evidence suggest that those with Korsakoff’s syndrome show what?

Intact implicit memory but disrupted explicit memory

Based on evidence of double disassociation between episodic and semantic memory, what can we conclude about how these systems function?

Memory types can be impaired independently

What is the memory erros hytpothesis?

Shared connections and retrieval paths make memories less distinguishable from one another. As more links are added to different episodes, the boundary becomes less distinguishable → leads to misattribution (attributing a correct memory to the incorrect source). There are two types of memeory errors: intrusion and omission

What are intrusion erros?

A memory error in which a person recalls elements that were not part of the original episode

What are omission errors?

A memory error in which a person fails to recall elements that were part of the original episode

What is the DRM paradigm?

People are likely to remember a theme word that was not presented from a word list. For example: read the words bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, snooze, snore, peace, yawn. You may falsely remember the word sleep bc of its relation. Semantic associations can lead to false memory

What is the schematic knowledge hypothesis?

Idea that existing schemas can distort memory

+fast processing of expectations in common events

-false memories when remembering events

Brewer and Treyens (1981):

Procedure: participants waited in experimenters office for 30 minutes and were tested on memory of what they saw

Results: mistakenly remember seeing books in academic office when none were there

After studying a list of words such as thread, pin, sewing, sharp, and point Mila confidently recalls the word needle even though it was not shown. What does this memory error illustrate?

Semantic associations can lead to false memories during recall

What is the misinformation effect?

An effect in which reports about an earlier event are influenced by misinformation that the person received after experiencing the event. Ex: errors in eyewitness testimony. National Registry of Exonerations report: eyewitness misidentitification → 71% of over 300 convivtions

Loftus and Palmer (1947)

Participants viewed a series of pictures depicting a car accident and were later asked questions about the collision: how fast were the cars going when they HIT each other? or, How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED INTO each other?

What were the results of Loftus and Palmer’s experiment?

False memories were associated with the verbiage and language used when asking participants to recall the collision. When using strong wording like SMAHSHED INTO, participants reported more false memories (false memories of the cars going way faster than they actually were)

What is memory confidence and its impact on false memoriess?

Memory confidence is NOT a reliable indicator of accuracy! Confidence is an indicator of memory accuracy only in a narrow set of circumstances. Confidence is influenced by factors beyond memory: repetition, emotion, plausibility, and feedback

Wells and Bradfield (1998)

Procedure: participants witnessed a simulated crime and were asked if they could identify the culprit. SOme were given feedback (e.g., good you identified the suspect), others were given no feedback

What were the results of Wells and Bradfield experiment?

Memeory confidence increased when participants were given positive feedbackl

Amelie and Jada witnessed a hit-and-run car accident. A police officer asks amelie how fast the cars were going when they “slammed” into one another, and another asks jada how fast the cars were going when they “hit” one another. How can we expect them both to respond?

Amelie will rate the cars as going faster

If an eyewitness is confident that his memory of a crime is correct, what should the jury take into consideration?

Memory confidence is sometimes a poor indicator of memory

What is a retention interval?

Time that elapsed between learning and later retrieval. AKA Ebbinghause forgetting curve. The drop happens early when memories are most fragile

What is the decay theory of forgetting?

With the passage of time, memories may fade or erode. Possibly relevant to unused but relevant brain cell loss. Connections require constant refreshing. Without maintenance, memories erode away.w