AP Psych Unit 1

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you "knew it all along."

Overconfidence

he tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge or judgments.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for or favor information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Social Desireability

The tendency to give answers that make oneself look good or align with social norms rather than being truthful.

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational Definition

A clear, specific statement of how a variable will be measured or defined in a study.

Replication

Repeating a research study to see if the original results can be confirmed.

Peer Review

The evaluation of a study by other experts before it is published.

Sampling Bias

An error that occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the population.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into experimental or control groups by chance to reduce bias.

Experiment

A research method in which the independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on a dependent variable and determine cause and effect.

Experimental vs. Control Group

The experimental group receives the treatment or independent variable, while the control group does not and serves as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo Group

A control group that receives an inactive treatment to see if changes are due to belief rather than the actual treatment.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experiment in which participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, but the researchers do.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experiment in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Placebo and Placebo Effect

A fake treatment with no active ingredients that can cause a person to feel better simply because they believe it will work.

Independent Variable

variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Positive Correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables

Qualitative vs Quantative

change in structure (sexual development) or change in number, degree or frequency

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Meta-Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Correlational

A type of study that looks at the relationship between two variables but does not show cause and effect.

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

Mean

average

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Generalizing

How much the data applies to the general population.

Statistical Significance P-scores

A statistical statement of How likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. The lower it is, the better

Effect Size

Qualitative measure of the difference between 2 variables

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Frequency Distribution

Summarized grouping of data

Institutional Review

process of examining studies for ethical concerns by a committee of peers

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Protect From Harm

an ethical principle that ensures the safety and well-being of people involved in psychological research

Confidentiality

Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret

Deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debreifing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Psychoanalytic Perspective (Sigmund Freud)

Behavior is shaped by unconscious thoughts, desires, and childhood experiences.

Psychodynamic Perspective (Modern Psychoanalytic)

Focuses on how early experiences and unconscious mind influence behavior, but with more focus on relationships and emotions.

Behaviorist Perspective (John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner)

Behavior is learned through rewards, punishments, and conditioning.

Cognitive Perspective (Jean Piaget)

Looks at how we think, remember, and solve problems.

Humanist Perspective (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

Behavior is driven by the need for personal growth and achieving full potential.

Socio-cultural Perspective (David Matsumoto, Lev Vygotsky)

Behavior is shaped by culture, social groups, and environment.

Evolutionary Perspective (David Buss)

Behaviors developed over time to help survival and reproduction.

Biopsychosocial Approach (Eclectic Approach)

Behavior is influenced by biology, thoughts/feelings, and social/cultural factors together.