ANT100 ARCH 12

What is domesticated squash?

Squash domesticated around 10,000 years ago, with differences from wild variants in flesh color, rind thickness, and seed size.

Where was domesticated squash found?

Found in Guila Naquitz Cave, highland Mexico, incorporated into mobile settlement practices.

Early evidence of maize domestication?

Found at Guila Naquitz with macroscopic evidence of cob with tough rachis (6250 years ago) and earlier microscopic starch grains in lowlands (ca. 8100 years ago).

What is the wild ancestor of maize?

Teosinte, a plant that looked very different from modern maize, with fewer seeds and multiple ears.

Differences between maize and teosinte?

Maize has larger ears, up to 20 rows of kernels, a husk, and grows from a single stem. Teosinte has two rows, fewer seeds, and grows off branches with multiple ears.

How is maize's appearance different from teosinte?

Maize has several rows of kernels (up to 20), a husk, and softer glumes, while teosinte has two rows, no husk, and hard glumes.

Where is the first evidence of domesticated beans?

First evidence from Tehuacán Valley, with domesticated beans around 2500 years ago, though domestication could have occurred 5000 years ago.

What are the characteristics of domesticated beans?

More permeable, non-shattering pods, larger yields, and more productive with consistent fruit every year.

What are the Three Sisters?

Maize, beans, and squash, foundational to indigenous diets in Central, North, and South America.

Why do the Three Sisters grow together?

Maize provides a trellis for beans, beans fix nitrogen in the soil, and squash covers the ground to retain moisture.

What benefits do the Three Sisters provide?

A complete diet with all nine essential amino acids, demonstrating indigenous agricultural knowledge.

What is the role of the Olmec in Mesoamerican culture?

The Olmec are considered a "mother culture," influencing later Mesoamerican societies with cultural practices like ritual, art, and architecture.

Where were the Olmec centered?

Around the Gulf of Mexico, organized around river systems, with their peak between 3800-2600 years ago.

What did Olmec settlements have?

Palaces, royal tombs, administration buildings, temples, a writing system, and art.

How did Olmec elites maintain control?

By controlling rituals, trade, and agricultural surplus.

What is San Lorenzo?

The first Olmec ritual and political center, home to 7000-8000 people, with elites living in specific areas.

What are the colossal heads at San Lorenzo?

Large stone sculptures depicting rulers, possibly linked to the ball game, and symbolizing elite power.

What types of workshops were found at San Lorenzo?

Stone sculpture workshops, obsidian blade production, and other monumental building efforts.

What does the monumental architecture at San Lorenzo suggest?

It suggests that elites orchestrated significant labor forces to build structures like causeways and embankments.

What was La Venta's role in Mesoamerica?

La Venta became a political and ceremonial center after the decline of San Lorenzo, setting a template for Mesoamerican cities with elite structures surrounding a plaza.

What is significant about the layout of La Venta?

The ceremonial area surrounded by a plaza and elite structures became a model for future Mesoamerican cities.

Who lived at La Venta?

Primarily elites, with little evidence of commoners living there.

What is Teotihuacan known for?

Teotihuacan was a powerful ritual and political center in the Mexican Basin, known for its massive plazas, pyramids, and influence on religion, trade, and warfare.

What was the Avenue of the Dead?

A major avenue in Teotihuacan, leading through the city’s sacred precinct, named by the Aztecs centuries after its decline.

What were the Pyramid of the Sun and Pyramid of the Moon?

Major monumental structures at Teotihuacan, central to the city’s religious and political power.

How large was Teotihuacan at its peak?

With a population of around 80,000 people, it was one of the 10 largest cities in the world at its height.

What is notable about Teotihuacan's artwork?

Murals at Teotihuacan did not emphasize individuals or elites, unlike the Olmec art.

How was Teotihuacan organized?

The central precinct was surrounded by well-planned neighborhoods, with elites controlling religion, trade, and warfare.

How does Teotihuacan compare to Tikal?

Tikal’s city-state structure had dispersed neighborhoods and a focus on hamlets, whereas Teotihuacan had more organized neighborhoods surrounding its sacred precinct.

What characterized the Classic Maya period (250-900 AD)?

City-states like Tikal emerged, densely populated urban centers with semi-divine kingship, and central precincts for religion, palaces, and administration.

How did Maya kings document their achievements?

Maya hieroglyphs recorded royal achievements, dates, and bombastic events, including the use of calendars.

How many calendars did the Maya have?

The Maya had four calendars, including a sacred calendar based on Venus and one that tracked years from a "day one" starting point.

What is the "Maya collapse"?

The Maya collapse refers to the dramatic changes at the end of the Classic period, often linked to poor environmental management and drought.

What is the ecocide argument regarding the Maya collapse?

It suggests that environmental decline, driven by deforestation for resources and construction, contributed to the collapse, alongside drought.

What is the alternate view of the Maya collapse?

The "Terminal Classic" period is seen as a transformation lasting 300 years, with varying responses to drought and shifts in agricultural practices.

What happened to Maya city-states during the collapse?

Some city-states thrived, while others were abandoned. The collapse was not a uniform event, and some regions continued to prosper.

When did the last Maya kingdom fall?

The last Maya kingdom was conquered by the Spanish in 1697, though the Maya culture persisted and restructured.

Did the Maya truly collapse?

The Maya did not collapse but endured, adapting to changes and surviving through complex transformations rather than a total collapse.

What is unique about the origins of domestication and cities in the Andes?

Highaltitude herding developed first, while social and political centers formed rapidly in the coastal plains after farming began.

What animals were domesticated in the Andes?

Llamas, alpacas, and vicunas (wild cousins) were domesticated for meat, wool, and as pack animals for transport in the mountains.

When were alpacas domesticated?

Alpacas were domesticated around 7,000 years ago, though distinguishing their bones from vicunas can be difficult.

What can bone age and sex profiles tell us about domestication?

Age and sex profiles in bones (such as older females kept for breeding) can indicate domestication practices, where young males were eaten and older females retained for breeding.

Is there evidence of animal husbandry in the Andes?

Evidence suggests the use of pens or corrals for domesticated animals like alpacas.

What were the early plant domestications in the coastal plains?

Squash (8,000 years ago), cotton (6,000 years ago), and maize (6,700 years ago) were domesticated, with maize indicating early starch grain usage in the lowland areas.

How did squash domesticate itself?

Squash thrived in disturbed soils, making it easy to cultivate near settlements.

Why were coastal areas more suitable for sedentary populations?

Coastal areas had more favorable environments for food storage, supporting more sedentary populations.

What is Caral?

Caral, dating back to about 5,700 years ago, is a ceremonial center located on the southern coast of Peru, known for its monumental architecture but lacking pottery.

What makes Caral unique?

Caral was a large settlement with residential areas and ceremonial precincts, featuring domesticated plants like maize and cotton, and a heavy reliance on marine resources despite being located inland.

What was Caral's role in trade?

Caral likely engaged in trade with coastal settlements, exchanging nets (possibly for fishing) and cotton for marine resources, such as sardines and shellfish.

Is Caral a city?

There is debate: while Caral had monumental architecture, it lacks key indicators of a city, like administrative buildings, palaces, or government storehouses, making its classification uncertain.

When did the first cities appear in the Andean region?

The emergence of cities in the Andes is debated. Some argue cities appeared later, around 2,000 to 1,000 years ago with cultures like Nazca and Moche, while others question whether they were true cities or ranked kin-based societies.

What are the Nazca and Moche?

Nazca and Moche are archaeological cultures around rivers in the Andes, known for urban-like centers. Some see them as proto-urban or state-like societies, while others argue they were competitive kin-based societies.

What are the Nazca Lines?

The Nazca Lines are large glyphs and patterns on the desert floor in southern Peru, depicting animals, humans, and straight lines, visible from the air but appearing as lines on the ground.

How are the Nazca Lines created?

The lines are formed by removing rocks from the desert's surface, revealing lighter-colored ground beneath. Some are oriented around specific centers.

What are the recent discoveries about the Nazca Lines?

Drones and AI have revealed about 300 more Nazca lines, which are smaller than the famous ones, expanding the understanding of these formations.

What are the interpretations of the Nazca Lines?

Interpretations vary, with some suggesting they were used for rituals or pilgrimages, while pseudoscientific theories (like alien landing strips) have been popularized.

What are the Nazca Settlements like?

Nazca settlements, such as Cahuachi, were centered around pyramids and mounds, serving as pilgrimage centers with associated plazas, ceremonial activities, and evidence of social inequality.

What is Cahuachi?

Cahuachi is a major Nazca site, featuring 40 mounds and enclosures, where people likely lived and participated in rituals, indicated by flutes, textiles, and ceremonial items.

What is Huaca del Sol?

A massive pyramid built with nearly a million standardized bricks.

What is Huaca de la Luna known for?

Murals depicting warfare and captive-taking.

What role did military power have in Moche society?

Military power was linked to religion and social hierarchy.

How many brick-making areas contributed to Huaca del Sol's construction?

Over 100 different brick-making areas.

Was Moche a city?

Moche had a large site with residential areas, but lacked clear administrative buildings.

What does Moche pottery depict?

Warriors and images of battle.

How was the construction of Huaca del Sol coordinated?

Construction involved coordinated labor across many different brick-making regions.

Why is Moche's art significant?

It reflects the importance of warfare and religion in their society.

What was the significance of warfare in Moche culture?

Depicted in murals and pottery, signifying its central role in their hierarchy.

What was the purpose of Huaca de la Luna?

It was a religious center, decorated with murals depicting warfare.

What was Tawantinsuyu?

The Inca Empire, meaning "Land of Four Parts."

How many provinces did the Inca Empire have?

Over 80 provinces with linguistic and cultural diversity.

Where was the capital of the Inca Empire?

The capital was Cuzco.

What does "Inca" refer to?

The people of the empire and the title for their king.

Who was Pachacuti?

The ruler who started the expansion of the Inca Empire in the 15th century.

What is Machu Picchu?

An important Incan site, though not the capital, it was a key center.

What was Cuzco’s role in the Inca Empire?

It was the geographic, political, and cosmological center of the empire.

Who lived within the walls of Cuzco?

Elites, including the nobility and priests, approximately 20,000 people.

How were commoners and lesser nobles organized in Cuzco?

They lived in suburbs around the city.

What did the Inca empire lack in terms of economy?

No markets; instead, resources were redistributed by the state.

What was the role of the Inca king?

Kings were semi-divine and represented the Sun God on Earth.

What happened upon the death of an Inca king?

The king's palace became a mausoleum, and the family managed the properties.

Why did each new Inca need to acquire wealth?

To build a new palace and expand the empire, which led to continued conquest.

What is a Panaqa in Incan society?

The lineage or extended family that managed the deceased king’s properties.

What was the role of Inca palaces?

Palaces served as both residences and mausoleums for deceased kings.

What is quipu?

• record-keeping system

• some argue that it’s a writing system

• a main cord and more cords coming off of it with knots

How were taxes collected in the Inca Empire?

Taxes were collected through agricultural surplus and labor from farmers working on state and temple lands.

What was the Inca resettlement program?

When the Inca conquered new areas, they moved out local populations and resettled them elsewhere, often placing their own people in the new territories.

What is the difference between city-states and the Inca Empire?

Unlike city-states, the Inca Empire was a vast empire requiring more complex administration to maintain control over its large territory.

How did the Inca improve their road system?

The Inca inherited and expanded existing road systems, adding outposts for rest and overnight stays.

What was the function of Inca roads?

The roads allowed for efficient communication across vast distances, with runners delivering information quickly.

What is the Eastern Agricultural Complex?

A collection of plants domesticated in Northeast North America, including goosefoot, maygrass, sumpweed, and sunflower.

Where was the Eastern Agricultural Complex located?

Primarily in the Midwest U.S., including regions like Illinois, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Arkansas.

When were plants from the Eastern Agricultural Complex domesticated?

Between 5000 and 3800 years ago.

What types of plants were domesticated in the Eastern Agricultural Complex?

Knotweed, goosefoot, little barley, maygrass, squashes, sumpweed, and sunflowers.

What were the uses of these domesticated plants?

They provided carbohydrates (e.g., goosefoot, knotweed), oils/fats (e.g., sunflowers), and fibers for textiles (e.g., maygrass).

Why did these plants grow well in the Eastern Agricultural Complex?

These plants thrive in disturbed soils, which is where people lived in semi-permanent settlements.

Shift to Maize, Beans, and Squash in Northeast

Maize began appearing in small amounts around 2200 years ago in Ontario, becoming a major crop by 1000 years ago.

Ancestral Wendat Farming Villages and Towns

• Large, palisaded settlements (100-2000 people) that grew in size over time.

• Settlements moved every 20-40 years.

• Oshowaries (former settlements) became hunting grounds, while new ones were established.

Longhouses and Matrilineal Society

• Longhouses, sometimes 30 meters long, represented matrilineal lineages, with each house tied to the mother's side.

• Clusters of longhouses may reflect relationships between matrilineal lines.

Agriculture in Wendat Communities

Maize made up 70% of the diet, supported by isotopic signatures in human bones.

Wendat and the Repatriation of Artifacts

Replication of cultural artifacts, such as those from Oshowaries, associated with former Huron-Wendat settlements.