Imperialism and Progressivism in the United States (c. 1890–1920)

Imperialism (U.S. context)

A policy of extending a nation’s power beyond its borders through territorial acquisition, military occupation, political control, or economic dominance.

Territorial empire

An imperial form involving formal annexation of land (e.g., U.S. annexation of Hawai‘i in 1898).

Colonial control

Governing people without granting full political equality (e.g., U.S. rule in the Philippines after 1898).

Informal empire

Exerting economic and political influence without formal annexation (e.g., U.S. influence in Cuba via the Platt Amendment).

Alfred Thayer Mahan

Naval strategist who argued in The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) that national greatness depended on sea power, including strong fleets and overseas bases/coaling stations.

Yellow journalism

Sensational news reporting that inflamed public opinion and helped push the U.S. toward intervention, especially during the Cuban crisis before the Spanish–American War.

USS Maine

U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898; many Americans blamed Spain (cause uncertain at the time), and it became a rallying cry for war.

Spanish–American War (1898)

Brief war in which the U.S. defeated Spain in the Caribbean and Pacific, leading to major overseas acquisitions and debates over U.S. identity and empire.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Peace treaty ending the Spanish–American War; Spain relinquished Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the U.S., and the U.S. acquired the Philippines (with payment to Spain).

Platt Amendment (1901)

Measure incorporated into Cuba’s constitution that limited Cuban sovereignty by allowing U.S. intervention and requiring Cuba to lease land for U.S. naval bases (including Guantánamo Bay).

Philippine–American War (1899–1902)

Brutal conflict after the U.S. decided to keep the Philippines; involved guerrilla warfare and harsh U.S. counterinsurgency tactics against Filipino nationalists seeking independence.

Open Door Policy

John Hay’s 1899–1900 policy calling for equal trading rights among foreign powers in China and support for China’s territorial integrity (influence without annexation).

Roosevelt Corollary

Theodore Roosevelt’s addition to the Monroe Doctrine asserting the U.S. could intervene in Latin America to stabilize nations and prevent European intervention, especially over debt.

Progressivism

Broad reform movement (1890s–1910s) aiming to address problems from industrial capitalism, urbanization, corruption, and inequality by using more active government and reform tools.

Muckrakers

Journalists and writers who exposed corruption, exploitation, and unsafe conditions, building public pressure for reform legislation.

The Jungle

Upton Sinclair’s 1906 novel exposing meatpacking conditions; public reaction focused on food safety and helped spur federal consumer protection laws.

Meat Inspection Act (1906)

Federal law strengthening inspection and regulation of meatpacking, passed in response to public outrage over unsafe conditions highlighted by muckraking.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Federal consumer protection law that improved regulation of food and drugs, addressing adulteration and mislabeling.

Initiative

Progressive reform allowing citizens to propose laws by petition, intended to weaken party machines and increase voter influence.

Referendum

Progressive reform allowing citizens to vote directly on proposed laws, intended to make government more responsive and reduce corruption.

Recall

Progressive reform allowing voters to remove an elected official before the end of a term, increasing accountability.

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

Constitutional amendment establishing direct election of U.S. senators, reducing state legislatures’ role and the corruption progressives associated with it.

Settlement house

Community center in immigrant neighborhoods providing services (classes, childcare, job training) while also advocating reforms to improve urban life.

Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire (1911)

Deadly factory fire in New York City that exposed unsafe working conditions (locked doors, poor exits) and spurred stronger workplace safety and building regulations, especially at the state level.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

Constitutional amendment prohibiting denial of the vote on the basis of sex; a major expansion of democracy, though many Black women still faced disfranchisement in practice (especially in the South).