Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical features from an Instructional Design Perspective

Why is there a need for a bridge between basic learning research and educational practice?

Because it connects theoretical knowledge from learning research with practical instructional actions, enabling the translation of learning theory into effective educational practice.

 What is the primary role of instructional designers?

To translate principles of learning and instruction into concrete specifications for instructional materials and activities that improve learning outcomes.

What abilities must instructional designers possess?

They must be able to diagnose and analyze learning problems, understand potential sources of solutions, and match appropriate theoretical or practical approaches to those problems.

What is the critical link in instructional design?

The connection between instructional design issues and theories of human learning, not an isolated body of knowledge about instructional phenomena.

Why is there an emphasis on learning theory and research in instructional design?

Because learning theories provide verified instructional strategies, tactics, and techniques that guide the selection of effective instructional solutions.

What role do learning theories play in instructional design?

They serve as the foundation for reasoned strategy selection, helping designers understand when, why, and how to apply specific instructional approaches.

Why must instructional designers know multiple learning strategies?

To effectively match task demands with the most suitable instructional strategy, ensuring the best possible learning outcomes.

Why is integration of strategy within the instructional context important?

 Because the success of a learning strategy depends on how well it fits the context and the learner’s characteristics. Theories help determine the best contextual applications.

What is the ultimate role of a learning theory?

 To enable reliable prediction of learning outcomes, ensuring that selected strategies have the highest likelihood of success given limited time and resources.

What determines the selection of an appropriate learning theory for a task?

The level of cognitive processing required by the learner, which helps identify the theory and strategies best suited to achieving the desired outcomes.

Why should instructional designers not rely on only one theoretical perspective?

Because solving practical learning problems often requires flexibility and the use of multiple theoretical viewpoints to find the most effective solution.

How is learning defined?

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a particular way, resulting from practice or other forms of experience.

What is empiricism?

The view that experience is the primary source of knowledge; organisms are born without innate knowledge, and learning occurs through environmental interactions and associations.

 What are the historical roots of empiricism?

 Originating with Aristotle, empiricism holds that knowledge comes from sensory impressions, which combine in time or space to form complex ideas.

 What is an example of empiricist association?

The idea of a tree is built from simpler ideas like branches and leaves, derived from sensations such as greenness and woody odor—knowledge built from environmental associations.

What is the instructional design focus under empiricism?

To manipulate environmental conditions to ensure proper associations and enhance learning through experience.

What is rationalism?

The belief that knowledge arises from reason rather than sensory experience; learning involves mental reflection and discovery of innate ideas.

What are the historical roots of rationalism?

Rooted in Plato’s philosophy, which viewed knowledge as existing within the mind and revealed through thought rather than derived from experience.

What is the instructional design focus under rationalism?

To structure new information so that learners can (1) encode new material effectively and (2) recall knowledge that already exists in the mind.

How did empiricism influence later learning theories?

It provided the foundation for early 20th-century learning theories and gave rise to behaviorism, which dominated psychology and education.

How did behaviorism shape instructional design?

Since behaviorism was dominant when instructional theory developed, early instructional design adopted its assumptions, emphasizing observable outcomes and environmental c

What is the central idea of behaviourism in learning?

Behaviourism equates learning with observable changes in behaviour—specifically, changes in the form or frequency of responses following environmental stimuli.

How is learning demonstrated in behaviourism?

Learning is shown when a learner performs the correct response after a specific stimulus is presented, such as replying “6” when shown the flashcard “2+4=?”.

What is the relationship between stimulus and response in behaviourism?

A stimulus elicits a specific response. Learning occurs through forming and strengthening these stimulus–response (S-R) associations.

How does reinforcement influence learning in behaviourism?

Responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future. Reinforcement strengthens the link between stimulus and response.

What is the learner’s role according to behaviourism?

The learner is reactive rather than proactive, responding to external environmental conditions rather than actively constructing knowledge.

What does behaviourism emphasize more—learner factors or environmental factors?

Environmental factors. Behaviourists focus on manipulating stimuli, consequences, and reinforcement to shape learning.

Why are environmental conditions critical in behaviourist learning?

Because the arrangement of stimuli and consequences in the environment directly determines the likelihood and strength of learned behaviours.

How do behaviourists determine where instruction should begin?

They conduct pre-assessment to identify the learner’s current performance level and determine which reinforcers will be most effective.

What is the behaviourist explanation for forgetting?

Forgetting occurs due to the nonuse of a response over time. Periodic practice helps maintain readiness to respond.

How is memory treated in behaviourism?

Memory is not a central focus. Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour rather than internal mental storage or processing.

What is transfer of learning according to behaviourism?

Transfer happens through generalisation—when learned behaviours are applied to new but similar situations that share common features.

Can you give an example of behavioural transfer?

A student who learned to classify elm trees can apply that learning to classify maple trees because of the similarities between them.

What is generalisation in behaviourism?

The process by which a response learned in one situation is performed in another situation with similar stimuli.

What kinds of learning tasks are best explained by behaviourism?

Tasks involving discriminations (facts), generalisations (concepts), associations (applications), and chaining (automatic procedures).

Which types of learning are difficult to explain through behaviourism?

Higher-order skills like problem-solving, inference generation, critical thinking, and language development.

How does behaviourism view complex cognitive processes?

It does not fully address them. Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour rather than internal thought or reasoning.

How did behaviourism influence early instructional design?

It guided the development of early audio-visual materials, Skinner’s teaching machines, and programmed instruction.

What are some modern instructional design applications of behaviourism?

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI), mastery learning, criterion-referenced assessment, and task analysis.

How does behaviourism view the goals of instruction?

The goal is to elicit specific desired responses to stimuli and ensure learners can perform them accurately and consistently.

How should instruction be structured under a behaviourist framework?

Around target stimuli, with clear responses expected from learners, opportunities for practice, and reinforcement to strengthen learning.

What is the role of cues in behaviourist instruction?

Cues serve as prompts to elicit the desired response and help form strong stimulus–response associations.

How does reinforcement function in behaviourist instruction?

Reinforcement follows correct responses, strengthening the association between stimulus and behaviour and increasing the likelihood of repetition.

What does shaping mean in behaviourist terms?

Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour until the full behaviour is achieved.

How does practice contribute to learning in behaviourism?

Repetition and practice strengthen stimulus–response associations and make correct responses more automatic.

What are the specific behaviourist principles applied to instructional design?

Observable objectives, pre-assessment, sequencing from simple to complex, use of reinforcement, and practice with cues and feedback.

How does pre-assessment fit into behaviourist instructional design?

It identifies learners’ current skill levels to determine where instruction should begin and what reinforcers to use.

What is mastery learning and how does it relate to behaviourism?

Mastery learning ensures learners master simpler tasks before progressing to complex ones—a principle drawn from behaviourist sequencing.

How are reinforcement and feedback used in instructional design?

Tangible rewards and informative feedback serve as reinforcers to shape and sustain desired learning behaviours.

What is the teacher’s primary job in behaviourist instruction?

To design and manage environmental conditions that promote desired behaviours through cues, prompts, practice, and reinforcement.

What must teachers determine to elicit desired responses?

Which cues can effectively prompt the desired response and how to pair them with stimuli during instruction.

How should teachers arrange practice situations?

By pairing prompts with target stimuli that initially lack eliciting power so that over time, learners respond naturally to the stimuli.

What should teachers do to promote correct responding?

Arrange environments where learners can make correct responses in the presence of target stimuli and receive reinforcement for doing so.

What is an example of applying behaviourist principles in a work setting?

A manager teaching an intern to conduct a cost-benefit analysis by linking it to familiar decision-making processes like budgeting or spending choices.

How does similarity between tasks support learning according to behaviourism?

Similarities between new and familiar tasks allow learners to transfer existing stimulus–response associations to new situations more easily.

What is the ultimate aim of behaviourist instruction?

To ensure the learner reliably performs correct responses to specific stimuli, demonstrating consistent and measurable learning outcomes.

How does behaviourism define learning in measurable terms?

As observable, repeatable performance changes that can be objectively measured and reinforced in a controlled environment.

Why does behaviourism remain influential in modern instructional design?

Because its emphasis on clear objectives, measurable outcomes, reinforcement, and structured practice continues to inform effective teaching st

What philosophical assumption underlies both behavioural and cognitive theories?

They are primarily objectivistic, assuming that the world is real and external to the learner, and instruction aims to map that structure of the world onto the learner.

How does constructivism differ from the objectivist assumption of earlier theories?

Constructivism views knowledge as a function of how individuals create meaning from their own experiences rather than simply reflecting an external reality.

Who are the key figures associated with constructivist thought?

Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Nelson Goodman.

What shift occurs as we move from behaviourism and cognitivism toward constructivism?

The focus of instruction shifts from teaching to learning, from passive transfer of facts to active application of ideas to real problems.

How does learning occur according to constructivism?

Learning is the creation of meaning from experience. Learners construct personal interpretations of the world through individual experiences and interactions.

How do constructivists and cognitivists differ in their views of the mind?

Cognitivists see the mind as a mirror of the real world, while constructivists believe the mind filters input to produce its own unique reality.

Do constructivists deny the existence of a real world?

No, they acknowledge it but argue that our knowledge of it comes from our own interpretations and constructions of experience.

According to constructivism, how is meaning created?

Humans create meaning rather than acquire it, and since multiple interpretations are possible, no single “correct” meaning exists.

What happens to knowledge representations in constructivism?

Internal representations are constantly changing; knowledge is dynamic, not a fixed objective reality.

Why must learning be examined in its context?

Because knowledge emerges in contexts where it is relevant, and to understand learning, the actual experience and context must be considered.

Which factors influence learning in constructivism?

Both learner and environmental factors—their interaction creates knowledge.

How do constructivists view behaviour?

Behaviour is situationally determined and context-dependent.

Why must learning tasks be relevant and realistic?

Because content knowledge must be embedded in the situations where it will be used; realistic, meaningful tasks promote genuine understanding.

How is memory viewed in constructivism?

Memory is a dynamic process of construction, a cumulative history of interactions rather than storage of static information.

What is the goal of instruction regarding memory?

To help learners elaborate and interpret information, not just recall facts.

What does constructivism emphasize instead of recall?

Flexible use of pre-existing knowledge to create new, situation-specific understandings.

What three factors must meaningful learning include?

Activity (practice), concept (knowledge), and culture (context).

How does transfer occur in constructivism?

Through authentic tasks in meaningful contexts that mirror real-world use of knowledge and tools.

Why is authentic experience essential for transfer?

Because understanding is indexed by experience; only knowledge tied to real contexts can transfer effectively.

What happens if learning is decontextualized?

There is little hope for transfer since knowledge is disconnected from the contexts in which it is applied.

How is the effectiveness of learning measured in constructivism?

By how well a learner’s knowledge facilitates thinking and performing in real-world systems.

Does constructivism identify distinct types of learning?

No, constructivists reject the idea that types of learning can be separated from their context and content.

What are Johansen’s stages of knowledge acquisition?

Introductory, advanced, and expert stages.

For which stage is a constructivist approach most effective?

The advanced knowledge stage, where learners refine, challenge, and reconstruct prior misconceptions.

Which learning stage benefits more from objectivist approaches?

Introductory knowledge acquisition, where foundational facts and routines are built.

What does constructivism suggest about transitioning between learning stages?

As learners gain more knowledge, they can handle more complex, ill-structured problems—making a shift to constructivist approaches appropriate.

What are key assumptions of constructivism relevant to instructional design?

Knowledge is context-linked, learners construct their own understandings, and learning is validated through social negotiation.

In constructivism, is content pre-specified?

No, content emerges from multiple sources and evolves through learner experience.

What is a constructivist goal in instructional design education?

To prepare students to use knowledge as experts would, not to memorize isolated facts.

What are performance objectives focused on in constructivism?

On processes of construction and problem solving rather than on specific content outcomes.

What strategies are used in constructivist instruction?

Real-world, situated tasks
Cognitive apprenticeships (modelling and coaching)
Multiple perspectives (collaboration)
Social negotiation (discussion, debate)
Use of authentic examples
Reflective awareness

What are key instructional design applications of constructivism?

Anchor learning in meaningful contexts
Promote learner control and active manipulation of information
Present information in varied ways and contexts
Encourage problem-solving beyond given information
Assess through transfer to new situations

How should instruction be structured in constructivism?

It should emphasize learning rather than teaching, guiding learners to construct meaning, collaborate, and consider multiple perspectives.

What are the two main tasks of an instructional designer in a constructivist framework?

Teach students how to construct, monitor, and evaluate their own meaning.
Design authentic, relevant experiences that promote contextual learning.

What are some examples of constructivist learning applications?

Apprenticeships and on-the-job training in law, medicine, architecture, and business.

How does a novice instructional designer learn in a constructivist model?

Through modelling, coaching, and collaboration in authentic case contexts that mirror real professional challenges.

What role does collaboration play in constructivist learning?

Discussion with peers helps articulate understanding, share perspectives, and reframe concepts through social negotiation.

How do learners expand their horizons in constructivism?

By engaging in authentic experiences, exploring resources, attending discussions and conferences, and applying knowledge in complex, evolving situation

Why might the same instructional approach not work equally well for all learners?

Because strategies effective for novice learners encountering new material may be inefficient or unstimulating for more advanced learners already familiar with the content.

Why should facts, concepts, and problem-solving be taught differently?

Each requires a different instructional strategy suited to the nature of the knowledge and the learner’s proficiency level.

What two aspects of instruction vary depending on learner level?

Both the instructional strategies employed and the depth and breadth of the content covered.

What must an instructional designer do to match learner, content, and strategy effectively?

Diagnose learners’ current developmental stage and select the instructional approach that best facilitates progress along the continuum of professional knowledge.