BIOL 2160 Exam 5

The KIDNEY is primarily responsible for maintaining stability of _________________ volume, ________________ composition, and _________________.

It is also the main route for eliminating potentially toxic _____________________ and _____________ compounds from the body

ECF; Electrolyte; Osmolarity

Metabolic wastes; Foreign

Functions of the KIDNEY:

Maintain _______ balance in the body

Maintain proper _______________ of body fluids (BLOOD), primarily through regulating ______ balance

Regulate the quantity and concentration of most _______ ions

Maintain proper __________ volume

Help maintain proper ___________ balance in the body

Excreting (eliminating) the ______ products (wastes) of bodily metabolism

H2O

Osmolarity; H2O

ECF

Plasma

Acid-base

End

The URINARY system consists of urine forming organs like the ___________.

It also contains structures that carry urine from the kidneys to the outside for _____________ from the body like the ______________, ___________________ and __________________.

Kidney

Elimination

Ureters, urinary bladder and urethra

Ureters have a ____________ muscle-walled duct. They exit each __________ and carry urine to the ____________________.

Smooth; Kidney; Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder temporarily stores __________. It has a hollow, distensible, ___________ muscle-walled sac. It periodically empties to the outside of the body through the ___________.

Urine; Smooth; Urethra

The urethra conveys __________ to the outside of the body.

What is it straight and short in? What is it much longer and curvy in?

The urethra has DUAL FUNCTION. What are the two functions?

Urine

Females; Males

1. Provides route for urine to leave the bladder

2. Passageway for semen from reproductive organs

The nephron has a ____________ component, ________________ component and a ___________________________ component.

Vascular, Tubular and Combined Vasculartubular

Which two processes involve trans-epithelial support?

Secretion and re-absorption

Vascular component basically means blood.

The dominant part of the vascular component of a nephron is the _______________. It is basically a ball of _______________. Water and solutes are filtered through it as _________ passes through it. It also filters a ________________ plasma into the tubular component

Glomerulus

Capillaries

Blood

Protein-free

VASCULAR COMPONENT OF A NEPHRON

Glomerulus

Afferent Arteriole - carries blood __________ the GLOMERULUS

Efferent Arteriole - carries blood ___________ the GLOMERULUS

Peritubular capillaries - supply the _________ tissue; involved in exchanges with the fluid in the tubular _________

To

Away From

Renal

Lumen

TUBULAR COMPONENT OF THE NEPHRON

Bowman's Capsule - collects the glomerular _________________

Proximal Tubule - uncontrolled _________________ and ___________ of selected substances occur here

Loop of Henle - establishes an _______________ gradient in the renal ___________ that is important in the kidney's ability to produce ___________ of varying concentration

Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct - variable, controlled reabsorption of ____ and _____ and secretion of _____ and _____ occur here; leaving the collecting duct is _________, which enters the renal ___________

Filtrate

Reabsorption and secretion

Osmotic; Medulla; Urine

Reabsorption of Na+ and H2O; Secretion of K+ and H+

Leaving duct is Urine; Renal pelvis

What is part of the combine vasculartublar component? What does it produce?

The juxtaglomerular apparatus produces substances involved in the control of kidney function.

Which component has a HOLLOW, FLUID-filled tube formed by a SINGLE layer of EPITHELIAL cells?

What does the single layer indicate?

Tubular component

Exchange happens here

Explain the four basic renal processes.

What results from these four processes?

1. Glomerular filtration - nondiscriminant filtration of a protein-free plasma from the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule

2. Tubular reabsorption - selective movement of filtered substances from the tubular lumen to the peritubular capillaries

3. Tubular secretion - selective movement of non filtered substances from the peritubular capillaries to the tubular lumen

4. Concentration

Urine

________ % of the plasma that enters the glomerulus is filtered.

The ______% that is not filtered leaves through the ___________ arteriole.

20

80; efferent

Reabsorption is __________ to ____________.

Secretion is __________ to ____________.

Urine to blood

Blood to urine

In GLOMERULAR FILTRATION,

Fluid filtered from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule pass through ________ layers of the glomerular membrane.

During this step, almost everything that CAN be removed from the blood _____________. __________, which will become urine, is formed in this process.

Three

Is removed

Filtrate

TUBULAR REABSORPTION is a highly ________ and ________ process. It involves _______________ transport, or transport across the epithelial cells.

Selective and variable

Trans-epithelial

Reabsorbed substances must cross 5 barriers in tubular reabsorption.

The 5 steps are:

1. Must leave __________ fluid by crossing ___________ membrane of tubular cell

2. Must pass through _____________ from one side of tubular cell to the other

3. Must cross ______________ membrane of the tubular cell to enter ______________ fluid

4. Must diffuse through interstitial fluid

5. Must penetrate ____________ wall to enter __________ plasma

What do the tight junctions connecting the epithelial cells do?

Tubular; Luminal

Cytosol

Basolateral; Interstitial

Capillary; Blood

Make the membrane water-proof

_________ reabsorption can be an active or passive process? When is it passive? Active?

Tubular

Passive reabsorption

- No energy is required for the substance's net movement

- Moves down electrochemical or osmotic gradients

Active reabsorption

- Occurs if ANY ONE of the steps in transepithelial transport of a substance requires energy

-Movement occurs against electrochemical gradient

A Na+-K+ ATPase pump in ___________ membrane is essential for ____ reabsorption

Of total energy spent by kidneys, ____% is used for Na+ transport

Na+ is NOT reabsorbed (urine to blood) in the __________ limb of the loop of Henle

Water follows reabsorbed sodium by _________ which affects blood ___________ and blood ____________

Basolateral; Na+

80

Descending

Osmosis; Blood volume and blood pressure

67% of Na+ that is reabsorbed happens where? 25% where? 8% where?

Proximal tubule

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle

Distal and collecting tubules

Plays role in reabsorbing glucose, amino acids, H2O, Cl-, and urea

Proximal Tubule

Plays critical role in kidneys' ability to produce urine of varying concentrations

Ascending loop of Henle

Variable and subject to hormonal control; plays role in regulating ECF volume

Distal and collecting tubules

For sodium reabsorption, sodium going from lumen to tubular cell is _______ transport. From tubular cell to interstitial fluid is ________. From interstitial fluid to peritubular capillary is ______________.

The ATP used in the active process puts ______ into the tubular cell.

Passive; Active; Passive

K+

Urea is a __________ product.

Waste

Tubular SECRETION is that process reversed?

Tubular reabsorption

Kidney tubules can selectively add some substances to the filtrate.

In TUBULAR SECRETION, can kidney tubules selectively add some substances to the filtrate? If so, what are they?

The most important substances secreted into the tubules are?

Yes; things we have too much of

H+, K+ and organic ions

H+ is a substance important in tubular secretion.

It is important in regulating __________ balance.

It is secreted in which tubules?

Acid-base

Proximal, distal, and collecting tubules

K+ is a substance important in tubular secretion. It keeps plasma K+ concentration at appropriate level to maintain normal membrane excitability in ___________ and __________.

K+ is secreted only in which tubules?

Muscles and nerves

Distal and collecting tubules

Where are organic ions secreted?

ONLY in the proximal tubule

Is the reabsorption of sodium passive or active?

Secondary active transport

The loop of Henle is all about __________ of urine.

Descending limb is highly permeable to ______, but not to _______. As filtrate flows down, __________ leaves the tubule as the osmolarity of the _________________ increases. Loss of water increases the osmolarity of the filtrate. At the bottom of the loop, the concentration of the filtrate and the extracellular fluid is _______ (_____ mOsm).

Water, not sodium (NaCl)

Water leaves, ECF osmolarity increases

Equal (1200)

Very concentrated at bottom

The loop of Henle is all about concentration of urine.

Ascending limb is impermeable to ________, but permeable to ________. As highly concentrated filtrate flows up, NaCl _________, then is __________ transported out of the tubule. Water ___________ follow. Filtrate becomes more _________ than extracellular fluid.

Sodium (NaCl), not water

Diffuses, then actively transported out

Does not

Dilute

Very dilute at the top

Vasopresin/ ADH tells the body to ________ water.

65 percent of water re-absorption has to happen in the ___________ tubule. In the distal tubule and collecting duct it is variable, based on ____________________.

Conserve

Proximal

Secretion of ADH

Secreting vasopressin increases the permeability of the tubule cells in the distal tubule and collecting duct to water by inserting _____________.

Is the osmotic gradient for transport of water inside or outside the tubules?

Aquaporins

Outside

Where is vasopressin produced and where is it stored?

When is more of it secreted?

The release of vasopressin tells the distal tubule to _________ water.

Having excess water does what to vasopressin?

Hypothalamus; Posterior pituitary

During a water deficit

Reabsorb

Leads to less secretion of it. Mean more water in distal tubule which leads to more urination.

Alcohol _________ vasopressin. Therefore urination occurs ____________.

Inhibits; more frequently

For every ______ mLs of alcohol consumed, your body eliminates about ________ mLs of water in your urine.

This quickly dehydrates you, which is what causes the ________ the next day.

250; 1,000

Hangover

Urine stored in body is eliminated by __________.

Steps:

Urine in bladder stimulates _________ receptors

Contraction of ___________ pushes urine out of the body

The micturition reflex happens next. It is the relaxation of external _______________ sphincter muscle which allows urine to pass through _________ and out of the body.

Micturition

Stretch

Bladder

Urethral

Urethra

Micturition is under voluntary control but cannot be __________ indefinitely.

What is it called when you can't hold it any more?

Delayed

Urinary incontinence (comes with age)

The primary function of the DIGESTIVE system is to transfer nutrients, water, and electrolytes from ____________ food into body's _________ environment

What are the four functions the digestive system performs?

Ingested; Internal

1. Motility (movement)

2. Secretion

3. Digestion - chemical breakdown

4. Absorption

MOTILITY is muscular ____________ that mix and move forward the contents of the digestive tract

There are two types of digestive motilities.

Which motility pushes contents forward through the digestive tract?

Which one serves two functions? What are those functions?

Contractions

Propulsive

Mixing

1. Mixing food with digestive juices promotes digestion of foods

2. Facilitates absorption by exposing all parts of intestinal contents to the tract's absorbing surfaces

Digestive SECRETION consists of water, electrolytes and specific ___________.

Secretions are released into digestive tract ________ and are normally ___________ back into blood after digestion

Enzymes

Lumen

Reabsorbed

DIGESTION is a _____________ breakdown of structurally complex molecules into smaller, absorbable units.

It is accomplished by enzymatic _____________.

It breaks down carbs into ________________, proteins into ____________ and fats into _____________________.

Biochemical

Hydrolysis

Monosaccharides; Amino acids; Glycerol/ Fatty acids

ABSORPTION mainly occurs where? Is it complete there?

The small units resulting from digestion, along with water, vitamins, and electrolytes are transferred from digestive tract _________ into _____________

Small intestine

Lumen into blood

The digestive tract is continuous from _______ to ________.

*All of the ones listed are involved in digestion*

Name the organs where food actually enters (MPESSLA). What makes up the large intestine (CACR)?

The organs involved in digestion where food doesn't enter are called ___________________ organs. What are the 3?

What two organs make up the bilary system?

Mouth to Anus

Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small and Large Intestine, Anus

Cecum, Appendix, Colon, Rectum

Accessory Digestive Organs

Salivary glands, exocrine pancreas and bilary system

Liver and Gallbladder

The digestive tract wall has structure from the ______________ to the _____________. State its four tissue layers from outermost to innermost.

Esophagus to anus

Serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, mucosa

Which layer of the digestive tract lines the luminal surface and has a lot folds? What does having a lot of folds do?

Mucosa

Makes it have more surface area and more absorptive

Which layer of the digestive tract is thick with connective tissue and provides the digestive tract with elasticity? Why is elasticity beneficial?

Submucosa

Beneficial to have elastic digestive tract for storing big food or big quantities of food

What layer of the digestive tract has a major smooth muscle coat of digestive tube?

This layer consists of two main layers in most areas: circular and longitudinal.

The circular layer is the ____________ layer and its contraction decreases the ____________ of the lumen.

The longitudinal layer is the _________ layer and its contraction ____________ the tube.

Contractile activity in this layer produces ____________ and ___________ movements

Muscular externa

Inner; Diameter

Outer; Shortens

Propulsive and mixing

Which layer of the digestive tract secretes serous fluid? What two things does serous fluid do?

Serosa

1. Lubricates and prevents friction between digestive organs and surrounding viscera

2. Supports digestive organs in proper place while allowing them freedom for mixing and propulsive movements

The mouth is made up of the ______, _______, _________, ___________, ___________ and __________.

Lips, Palate, Tongue, Teeth, Saliva and Pharynx

What forms the opening of the mouth and has well-developed tactile sensation (understands TEXTURE of food)?

It helps procure, guide, and contain food in the mouth.

What forms the roof of oral cavity, which separates mouth from nasal passages?

What has taste buds and forms the floor of the oral cavity? What type of muscle is made of? What do its movements aid in?

Lips

Palate

Tongue; Skeletal; Swallowing and chewing

What is the cavity at the rear of the throat that is a common passageway for digestive and respiratory systems? What does it have on the side walls of it? What are they made of? Are they vestigial?

Pharynx

Tonsils

Lymphoid tissue

Yes

What in the mouth is responsible mastication (chewing), the first step of the digestive process?

The functions of chewing include:

Grinding and breaking food into smaller pieces to make swallowing easier and __________ food surface area on which ________ enzymes can act

Mixing food with _________

Stimulating ______ buds

Teeth

Increasing; Salivary

Saliva

Taste

Saliva, found in the mouth, produce largely by three major pairs of ___________ glands. It is _____% H2O and _____% proteins and electrolytes.

SALIVARY AMYLASE begins the digestion of ________________.

Saliva facilitates swallowing by _____________ the food. It also has antibacterial function (the ____________ destroys bacteria and saliva rinses away a possible __________ source for bacteria).

Saliva is also a solvent for molecules that stimulate _________ buds. It helps keep the mouth clean and it is RICH in ___________ buffers.

Salivary

99.5%; 0.5%

Carbohydrates

Moistening

Lysozyme; Food source

Taste; Bicarbonate

Swallowing is a motility that occurs in the __________ and ___________. It is initiated when the tongue forces food or drug to the __________. It is the most __________ reflex in the body. It can be initiated ______________ but CANNOT BE STOPPED once started.

Pharynx and esophagus

Pharynx

Complex

Involuntarily

Explain the two processes of swallowing.

The Oropharyngeal stage happens in the mouth and throat.

The Esophageal stage happens in the throat and stomach.

It moves the substances from the mouth to the pharynx and esophagus

The esophagus is a fairly __________ and __________ tube that extends between the _____________ and the _____________. It has ____________ at each end.

Which sphincter keeps the entrance closed to prevent large volumes of air from entering the esophagus and stomach during breathing?

Which one prevents reflux of gastric contents?

Straight and narrow; Pharynx and stomach

Sphincters at each end

Pharyngoesophageal sphincter

Gastroesophageal sphincter

_________ waves push food through the ESOPHAGUS.

______________ peristaltic contractions sweep bolus down the esophagus

Peristaltic waves

Ring-like

The stomach is a sac-like chamber shaped like a ______. It lies between the __________ and _____________.

J

Between esophagus and small intestine

Three sections of the stomach?

Three main functions of the stomach?

Fundus (top), body and antrum (bottom)

1. Store ingested food

2. Secretes HCl and other digestive enzymes that begin PROTEIN digestion

3. Mixing movements convert pulverized food into chyme

The __________ sphincter serves as a barrier between the stomach and small intestine.

When ___________, it blocks food to go from the stomach to small intestine. It __________ a bit at times so small portions of digested food can enter the small intestine for ____________.

Pyloric

Contracted

Relaxes

Absorption

Gastric motility (movement) has four aspects:

Filling, Storage, Mixing and Emptying

Which one occurs in the antrum of the stomach?

Which one occurs in the body of the stomach?

Which one is largely controlled by factors of the duodenum?

Mixing

Storage

Emptying

Gastric motility (movement) has four aspects:

Filling, Storage, Mixing and Emptying

____________ involves receptive relaxation. This includes the _____________ sphincter. It enhances the stomach's ability to deal with extra food by giving a little ___________ to the stomach pressure.

What is filling triggered by? What mediates it?

Filling

Gastroesophageal

Rise

Triggered by eating; Vagus nerve mediates it

What is the main factor that influences how strong a contraction is in the stomach? What is that?

The amount of chyme in the stomach

A pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

Factors in the duodenum include:

Fat, pH, hypertonicity and distension

Fat digestion and reabsorption only in the __________ of the small intestine

Fat:

Further gastric emptying of additional fatty stomach contents is prevented when?

In the lumen of the small intestine

When there is already fat in the duodenum

Factors in the duodenum include:

Fat, pH, hypertonicity and dissension

pH:

Further emptying of acidic gastric contents is inhibited when? When does it resume?

Un-neutralized

When there is un-neutralized acid in the duodenum

When neutralization is accomplished

Factors in the duodenum include:

Fat, pH, hypertonicity and dissension

Hypertonicity:

Gastric emptying is inhibited when _______________ of duodenal contents starts to RISE.

Osmolarity

Factors in the duodenum include:

Fat, pH, hypertonicity and distension

Distension:

Gastric emptying is inhibited when there is too much ______________ in the duodenum.

Chyme

Sadness and fear tend to ____________ motility

Anger and aggression tend to ____________ motility

Intense pain tends to ____________ motility

Decrease; Increase; Inhibit

The four gastric secretions are:

Alkaline mucus, Pepsinogen, HCl and Intrinsic Factor

These secretions are released from _________ cells that are controlled by _________/___________ cells.

Gastric secretions are secreted where?

Secretory

Endocrine/ Paracrine

Elsewhere in the stomach and intestine

The four gastric secretions are:

Alkaline mucus, Pepsinogen, HCl and Intrinsic Factor

Which gastric secretion activates pepsinogen, breaks down CONNECTIVE tissue and kills the microorganisms that we digest?

Which gastric secretion starts protein digestion when activated?

HCl

Pepsinogen

The four gastric secretions are:

Alkaline mucus, Pepsinogen, HCl and Intrinsic Factor

Which gastric secretion facilitates re-absorption of Vitamin B12?

Which gastric secretion protects the stomach lining from other secretions (high pH)?

Intrinsic Factor

Alkaline Mucus

The three gastric hormones are secretin, gastrin and cholecystokinen (CCK).

Secretin is stimulated by the presence of _________ in the duodenum.

Its release stimulates the ___________ to release _____________ buffer.

Acidic chyme

Pancreas; Bicarbonate

The three gastric hormones are secretin, gastrin and cholecystokinen (CCK).

Gastrin is stimulated by the presence of _________ in the duodenum.

Its release stimulates the _________ and _____________ cells to secrete more __________.

Protein

Chief and parietal cells

More HCl

The three gastric hormones are secretin, gastrin and cholecystokinen (CCK).

CCK is stimulated by the presence of _________ in the duodenum.

Its release stimulates the _________ to release _______________ and _____________ enzymes.

Both fat and protein

Pancreas

Lipase (breaks down fats) and proteolytic (protein-breaking) enzymes

Gastric secretion happens over three phases:

1. During the CEPHALIC (acting in the head) phase, there is an increased secretion of ______ and ____________ in response to sensing food you're about to eat. This phase happens _______ you even eat.

2. The GASTRIC phase begins once the food does what? The presence of protein __________ gastric secretions.

3. The INTESTINAL phase is _____________. It helps shut off the flow of ___________________ as ___________ enters the small intestine.

1. HCl and Pepsinogen

Before

2. Reaches the stomach

Increases

3. Inhibitory

Gastric juices; Chyme

The pancreas is a mixture of what two types of tissues?

It is an elongated gland that is found where?

Endocrine and exocrine

Below and behind the stomach

Endocrine means entering the _____________.

Exocrine means entering the ________________.

The ENDOCRINE function of the pancreas is to:

This is done through the Islets of Lanerghans. Where are they found?

Bloodstream

Body Cavity

Secrete insulin and glucagon

Throughout the pancreas

Endocrine means entering the _____________.

Exocrine means entering the ________________.

The EXOCRINE function of the pancreas is to:

What does that consist of?

Bloodstream

Body Cavity

Secretes pancreatic juice

Pancreatic enzymes

Aqueous alkaline solution actively that line pancreatic ducts

What are the three types of enzymes found in the pancreas?

Proteolytic enzymes, Pancreatic amylase and Pancreatic Lipase

Pancreatic amylase converts ________________ to _________________.

Pancreatic lipase is the only enzyme in the digestive system that can:

Proteolytic enzymes digest protein. What are the three types?

Polysaccharides to disaccharides

Digest fat

Trypsin

Chymotrypsin

Carboxypeptidase

Bile is actively secreted by the __________ and actively diverted to the _______________ when?

Where is bile stored and concentrated?

After a meal, where does bile go?

Liver; Gallbladder; Between meals

Gallbladder

Duodenum

Bile salts are derivatives of _____________. They convert large _______ globules to a small ___________ emulsion.

Most of the bile salts REABSORBED into the blood after participating in fat _____________ and ______________

Cholesterol

Fat

Liquid

After participating in fat digestion and absorption

Site where most digestion and absorption take place

What does motility here include? Which one is the primary method?

Small intestine

Segmentation

Migrating motility complex

Segmentation

Segmentation:

Segmentation consists of ____________ contractions along the length of the ________ intestine.

Within seconds, ___________ segments __________ and ____________________ segments ______________.

This action mixes chyme with ______________ juices throughout the small intestine's lumen.

Chyme is exposed to all absorptive surfaces of the small intestine's ______________.

Segmentation also __________ the small intestine BETWEEN meals.

Within seconds, contracted segments relax and previously relaxed areas contract

Small

Digestive

Mucosa

Cleans

The small intestine absorbs just about everything presented to it. Most of the absorption occurs where?

The small intestine also has adaptations that can increase its _______________. What is its adaptation on the inner surface? What else does it have?

How often in the small intestine's lining replaced?

Duodenum and jejunum

Surface area

Inner: Permanent circular folds

Microscopic finger-like projections called villi

About every three days

The large intestine is primarily a __________ and _____________ organ.

It consists of a __________, ____________, ____________ then _____________.

Drying and storing

Colon, cecum, appendix the rectum

The contents that the large intestine receives from the small intestine include ________________ food residues, unabsorbed __________ components and remaining ________.

What does the colon do with these contents? What is the stuff that is left to be eliminated through the rectum/ anal cavity called?

Indigestible; Bilary; Fluid

Extracts more water and salt from them

Feces

Large intestine has massive contractions. Why must they be so big?

__________ contents are into DISTAL part of large intestine

Masses

Must be so big because moving solid. Mainly liquids moving through small intestine

Colonic

DEFACATION Reflex:

Starts when ___________ stimulates the _________ receptors of the ________ wall.

This causes what to relax and what two things to contract vigorously?

Something else has to be relaxed for defamation to occur. It is a skeletal muscle under VOLUNTARY control.

Distension; Stretch; Rectal

Relax: Internal Anal Sphincter

Contract: Rectum and Sigmoid Colon

External Anal Sphincter