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104 Terms

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How do hydrogen bonds form?
negative oxygen end of one water molecule is attracted to the positive hydrogen end of another water molecule; responsible for most properties of water
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cohesion
Attraction between molecules of the same substance
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adhesion
An attraction between molecules of different substances
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capillary action
the combined force of attraction among water molecules and with the molecules of surrounding materials
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high specific heat
A property of water. Water can absorb lots of heat before changing temperature
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water is less dense as a solid
ice expands as it freezes so it floats
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hydroxyl group
OH-
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carbonyl group
C=O
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carboxyl group
COOH
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amino group
NH2
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phosphate group
PO4
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dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules are bonded together with the removal of a water molecule.- makes polymers
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Hydrolysis
A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water. breaks down polymers
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monomer of carbs
monosaccharides
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monomer of lipids
glycerol and fatty acids
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monomer of protein
amino acid
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monomer of nucleic acids
nucleotides
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examples of carbohydrate polymers
starch, cellulose, glycogen
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examples of lipid polymers
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids,
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examples of nucleic acid polymers
DNA and RNA
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example of protein polymer
polypeptide
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what determines the primary structure of a protein
sequence of amino acids
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secondary structure of protein
coils and folds due to the hydrogen bonding within the polypeptide backbone
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tertiary structure of protein
3D folding due to interactions between the side chains of the amino acids
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quaternary structure of protein
results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
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components of a nucleotide
nitrogenous base, phosphate, pentose sugar
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how are DNA and RNA different
DNA: deoxyribose, double strand, and thymine
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RNA: ribose, single strand, and uracil
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Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes- no nucleus (DNA found in nucleoid region), no membrane bound organelles, smaller, one circular chromosomes, bacteria. Eukaryotes- nucleus, organelles, larger, many linear chromosomes, plants and animals
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path of protein to final product
mRNA produced in nucleus-- ribosome-- Rough ER-- Golgi-- Vesicle
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ribosome
Makes proteins
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rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
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Smooth ER
makes lipids and detoxifies the cell
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Golgi
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
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Lysosome
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell
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vacuole
Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
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mitochondria
breaks down glucose into ATP
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chloroplast
converts sunlight into glucose
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what happens to the surface area to volume ratio as a cell grows?
decreases
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Do you want a large or small SA:V ratio?
high
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What adaptations do cells have to increase their ratio
Developing folds (mitochondria membrane), projections (microvilli on intestinal cells), elongated shapes
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What molecule embeds itself within the membrane and affects fluidity?
cholesterol
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what type of molecules are able to pass through the membrane?
small, nonpolar, and hydrophobic
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passive transport
the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell; moves substances down the concentration gradient
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active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
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facilitated diffusion
passive transport that requires a channel or carrier protein
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hypertonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is greater than that of the cell that resides in the solution; cell will lose water and shrink
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isotonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is essentially equal to that of the cell which resides in the solution; cell stays same size
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hypotonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the cell that resides in the solution; cell gains water and will burst if animal cell
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active site
the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds
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substrate
reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
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allosteric site
A specific receptor site on some part of an enzyme molecule remote from the active site.
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how do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?
by lowering the activation energy
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competitive inhibition
Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.
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noncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; changes shape of active site so that the substrate cannot bind
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where do light independent (Calvin Cycle) reactions occur?
stroma of the chloroplast
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where do light dependent reactions occur?
thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast
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what is produced in the light reactions?
ATP and NADPH
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How are electrons lost from photosystem II replaced?
splitting water; oxygen is released in the process
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what is the hydrogen gradient created in the light reactions used to do?
used by ATP synthase to create ATP
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what are the products of the light reaction used for in the Calvin cycle?
provide energy for glucose production
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Where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm
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how many ATPs are produced during glycolysis
2 ATP
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Where does the Krebs cycle occur?
mitochondrial matrix
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where does the electron transport chain occur?
inner membrane of mitochondria (cristae)
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how many ATPs are produced during the electron transport chain?
32-34
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what is the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain?
final electron acceptor- joins with H to form water
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direct contact cell signaling
May exchange signals through gap junctions or plasmodesmata
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Cell-cell recognition. Membrane proteins of neighboring cells contact
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paracrine signaling
secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in neighboring cells
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synaptic signaling
a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell
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long-distance signaling
endocrine signaling- hormones released into circulatory system
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reception (cell signaling)
ligand binds to receptor
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transduction (cell signaling)
conversion of an extracellular signal to an intracellular signal in a signal transduction pathway that is amplified and relayed by second messengers
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response (cell signaling)
the transduced signal triggers a specific response in the target cell
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extracellular receptors
are NOT LIPID soluable and are unable to penetrate a plasma membrane, instead bind to receptor proteins at the OUTER surface of the plasma membrane (extracellular receptors) EX: GPCRs, ligand gated ion channels
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intracellular receptors
receptors located inside the cell rather than on its cell membrane; hydrophobic Ex. steroids, hormones, nitric oxide
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why do second messengers do?
relay the message and amplify the signal (cyclic AMP)
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what responses can a cell have to a signal?
Trigger a protein that can alter membrane permeability, trigger an enzyme that will change a metabolic process, or trigger a protein that turns genes on or off
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G1
Cell growth
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S
DNA replication
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G2
Cell prepares to divide
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prophase
chromatin condenses, nucleoli disappear, duplicated chromosomes appear as sister chromatids, spindle begins to form, centrosomes move away from each other
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prometaphase
nuclear envelope fragments, spindle enters nuclear area and some attach to kinetochores
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metaphase
centrosomes are at opposite poles, chromosomes line up in middle, microtubules are attached to each kinetochore
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anaphase
sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell due to shortening of microtubules, cell elongates
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telophase
two daughter nuclei form, nucleoli reappear, chromosomes become less condensed
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cytokinesis
division of cytoplasm- animals cells- cleavage furrow, plant cells- cell plate
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end result of mitosis
2 identical daughter cells (diploid)
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what happens if a cell does not pass the G1 checkpoint?
it will enter G0
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What happens if a cell does not pass the G2 checkpoing?
will try to repair and if not trigger apoptosis
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What happens to levels of CDKs and cyclins during the cell cycle?
CDKs remain constant and cyclins fluctuate
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What happens when a cyclin binds to a CDK
It becomes an active CDK complex which phosphorylates target proteins which help regulate key events in the cell cycle
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contrast mitosis and meiosis
1) Mitosis produces 2 cells identical to the original cell. Meiosis produces 4 cells that are genetically different than the original cell.
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2) Mitosis -diploid, meiosis- haploid
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3) Mitosis produces somatic cells. Meiosis produces gametes or sex cells.
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4) Mitosis- 1 division, Meiosis- 2 division
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If an egg cell has 20 chromosomes, how many would the somatic cell have?
40
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diploid =24. what is the haploid number
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Prophase 1 of meiosis
synapsis (tetrad formation) and crossing over occurs