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104 Terms

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How do hydrogen bonds form?

negative oxygen end of one water molecule is attracted to the positive hydrogen end of another water molecule; responsible for most properties of water

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cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

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adhesion

An attraction between molecules of different substances

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capillary action

the combined force of attraction among water molecules and with the molecules of surrounding materials

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high specific heat

A property of water. Water can absorb lots of heat before changing temperature

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water is less dense as a solid

ice expands as it freezes so it floats

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hydroxyl group

OH-

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carbonyl group

C=O

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carboxyl group

COOH

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amino group

NH2

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phosphate group

PO4

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dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are bonded together with the removal of a water molecule.- makes polymers

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Hydrolysis

A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water. breaks down polymers

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monomer of carbs

monosaccharides

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monomer of lipids

glycerol and fatty acids

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monomer of protein

amino acid

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monomer of nucleic acids

nucleotides

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examples of carbohydrate polymers

starch, cellulose, glycogen

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examples of lipid polymers

Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids,

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examples of nucleic acid polymers

DNA and RNA

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example of protein polymer

polypeptide

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what determines the primary structure of a protein

sequence of amino acids

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secondary structure of protein

coils and folds due to the hydrogen bonding within the polypeptide backbone

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tertiary structure of protein

3D folding due to interactions between the side chains of the amino acids

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quaternary structure of protein

results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

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components of a nucleotide

nitrogenous base, phosphate, pentose sugar

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how are DNA and RNA different

DNA: deoxyribose, double strand, and thymine

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RNA: ribose, single strand, and uracil

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Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes- no nucleus (DNA found in nucleoid region), no membrane bound organelles, smaller, one circular chromosomes, bacteria. Eukaryotes- nucleus, organelles, larger, many linear chromosomes, plants and animals

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path of protein to final product

mRNA produced in nucleus-- ribosome-- Rough ER-- Golgi-- Vesicle

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ribosome

Makes proteins

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rough ER

A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.

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Smooth ER

makes lipids and detoxifies the cell

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Golgi

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

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Lysosome

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

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vacuole

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

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mitochondria

breaks down glucose into ATP

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chloroplast

converts sunlight into glucose

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what happens to the surface area to volume ratio as a cell grows?

decreases

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Do you want a large or small SA:V ratio?

high

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What adaptations do cells have to increase their ratio

Developing folds (mitochondria membrane), projections (microvilli on intestinal cells), elongated shapes

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What molecule embeds itself within the membrane and affects fluidity?

cholesterol

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what type of molecules are able to pass through the membrane?

small, nonpolar, and hydrophobic

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passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell; moves substances down the concentration gradient

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active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

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facilitated diffusion

passive transport that requires a channel or carrier protein

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hypertonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is greater than that of the cell that resides in the solution; cell will lose water and shrink

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isotonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is essentially equal to that of the cell which resides in the solution; cell stays same size

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hypotonic solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the cell that resides in the solution; cell gains water and will burst if animal cell

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active site

the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds

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substrate

reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

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allosteric site

A specific receptor site on some part of an enzyme molecule remote from the active site.

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how do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?

by lowering the activation energy

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competitive inhibition

Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.

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noncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; changes shape of active site so that the substrate cannot bind

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where do light independent (Calvin Cycle) reactions occur?

stroma of the chloroplast

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where do light dependent reactions occur?

thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast

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what is produced in the light reactions?

ATP and NADPH

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How are electrons lost from photosystem II replaced?

splitting water; oxygen is released in the process

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what is the hydrogen gradient created in the light reactions used to do?

used by ATP synthase to create ATP

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what are the products of the light reaction used for in the Calvin cycle?

provide energy for glucose production

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Where does glycolysis occur?

cytoplasm

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how many ATPs are produced during glycolysis

2 ATP

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Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

mitochondrial matrix

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where does the electron transport chain occur?

inner membrane of mitochondria (cristae)

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how many ATPs are produced during the electron transport chain?

32-34

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what is the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain?

final electron acceptor- joins with H to form water

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direct contact cell signaling

May exchange signals through gap junctions or plasmodesmata

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Cell-cell recognition. Membrane proteins of neighboring cells contact

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paracrine signaling

secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in neighboring cells

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synaptic signaling

a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell

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long-distance signaling

endocrine signaling- hormones released into circulatory system

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reception (cell signaling)

ligand binds to receptor

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transduction (cell signaling)

conversion of an extracellular signal to an intracellular signal in a signal transduction pathway that is amplified and relayed by second messengers

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response (cell signaling)

the transduced signal triggers a specific response in the target cell

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extracellular receptors

are NOT LIPID soluable and are unable to penetrate a plasma membrane, instead bind to receptor proteins at the OUTER surface of the plasma membrane (extracellular receptors) EX: GPCRs, ligand gated ion channels

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intracellular receptors

receptors located inside the cell rather than on its cell membrane; hydrophobic Ex. steroids, hormones, nitric oxide

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why do second messengers do?

relay the message and amplify the signal (cyclic AMP)

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what responses can a cell have to a signal?

Trigger a protein that can alter membrane permeability, trigger an enzyme that will change a metabolic process, or trigger a protein that turns genes on or off

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G1

Cell growth

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S

DNA replication

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G2

Cell prepares to divide

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prophase

chromatin condenses, nucleoli disappear, duplicated chromosomes appear as sister chromatids, spindle begins to form, centrosomes move away from each other

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prometaphase

nuclear envelope fragments, spindle enters nuclear area and some attach to kinetochores

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metaphase

centrosomes are at opposite poles, chromosomes line up in middle, microtubules are attached to each kinetochore

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anaphase

sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell due to shortening of microtubules, cell elongates

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telophase

two daughter nuclei form, nucleoli reappear, chromosomes become less condensed

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cytokinesis

division of cytoplasm- animals cells- cleavage furrow, plant cells- cell plate

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end result of mitosis

2 identical daughter cells (diploid)

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what happens if a cell does not pass the G1 checkpoint?

it will enter G0

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What happens if a cell does not pass the G2 checkpoing?

will try to repair and if not trigger apoptosis

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What happens to levels of CDKs and cyclins during the cell cycle?

CDKs remain constant and cyclins fluctuate

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What happens when a cyclin binds to a CDK

It becomes an active CDK complex which phosphorylates target proteins which help regulate key events in the cell cycle

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contrast mitosis and meiosis

1) Mitosis produces 2 cells identical to the original cell. Meiosis produces 4 cells that are genetically different than the original cell.

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2) Mitosis -diploid, meiosis- haploid

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3) Mitosis produces somatic cells. Meiosis produces gametes or sex cells.

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4) Mitosis- 1 division, Meiosis- 2 division

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If an egg cell has 20 chromosomes, how many would the somatic cell have?

40

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diploid =24. what is the haploid number

12

100
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Prophase 1 of meiosis

synapsis (tetrad formation) and crossing over occurs