609 - Advanced Research Methods Quiz 1

Why do OTs care about research

OT is science driven and evidence based

Generic research schema

ontology, epistemology, methodology, methods, knowledge/conclusions

Ontology

Realism:

• Reality is objective, “out there”

Relativism

• Multiple realities exist, context bound

Epistemology

Positivist

• Deduced through measurement/observation

• Goal of inquiry - explain, predict, generalize

• Researcher is detached, limit bias

Interpretive

• Constructed through experience

• Goal on inquiry - describe, understand, interpret

Researcher may be a co-creator of meaning

Quantitative (Methods)

• measure variable, test hypotheses, evaluate relationships on effects

• How much? How many? What is the effect?

• Numerical data

• Statistical analysis

• Estimate, effect sizes, hypothesis tests

Qualitative

• Understanding meanings, experience, and processes

• Why? How? What does this experience mean?

• Text, interview, observations

• Thematic and interpretive analysis

• Concepts, themes, theories

Population, intervention, outcomes, control

What does PICO stand for?

Research question

Identify the research problem, identify the research rationale, identify the type of research (study design)

Identify the research problem

made up of

• clinical experience

• clinical theory

• professional literature

Identify the research rationale

review of literature and theoretical framework

Identify the type of research (Study design)

What type of research can solve this problem?

What type of variables do I need to manipulate?

Explanatory (comparision)

cause and effect

compared the effects of an intervention on health outcomes, causal relationships across groups or conditions

Exploratory

observational

examine relationships among the variables

Descriptive

Qualitative

Describe populations

characterize clinical phenomena or existing conditions, abstract construct

Methodological

develop assessment tools

Independent Variable

The cause of what you change, can be manipulated

Dependent variable

the effect or outcome

do not manipulate but can be changed based on influence of other variable

P: children with ASD

I: tablet based communication apps

C: picture exchange systems

O: Communication skills

PICO Ex - Research Question: “Among children with

Autism Spectrum Disorder, does the use of

tablet-based communication apps enhance

functional communication skills more

effectively than traditional picture-

exchange systems?”

methodological

investigation of measuring instruments

• reliable, valid measure of constructs

research objectives

testing or development

evaluate effectiveness

replication or extension

review

components of a good question

• feasible

• answerable

• ethical

feasible

• will answering this question be worth it? in terms of resources, research subjects, expertise, existing knowledge, and scope

answerable

do we have the tools or ability to actually answer the question

• is it concrete (not moral/ethical)?

• “why” questions are the toughest - easier to show one treatment is more effective than another to discover why

ethical

research integrity and protection of human subjects (IRB)

Components of a good question

• specific

• clear

• Factors: concepts, variables, constructs

Axiology

• Description: What does the researcher value? What is their stance toward the research and participants?

• Positivism Paradigm: Objectivity; minimize researcher bias

• Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm: researcher perspectives acknowledged; reflexivity

Ontology

• Description: Refers to the nature of reality. What is there to know?

• Positivism Paradigm: Single objective reality

• Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm: multiple realities

Epistemology

Description: Refers to the nature of knowledge. How do we know what we know?

Positivism Paradigm: Knowledge is discovered through measurement

Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm: knowledge is constructed through experience and interaction

Methodology

Description: the overall strategy or rationale that links philosophical assumptions with specific methods

Positivism Paradigm: quantitative

Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm: qualitative

Methods

Description: the specific tool and techniques used to collect and analyze data

Positivism Paradigm: surveys, experiments, statistics

Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm: interviews, observations, thematic analysis

Ontological - Qualitative

knowledge about what things are

• multiple realities

• aim to report the multiple realities of participants

Epistemological - qualitative

knowledge about how we know

• individual perspectives are truth

• researchers get as close to the participants as possible

axiological - qualitative

knowledge about values, ethics

• researchers bring their values to a study

• researchers take on a particular “position” and make it known to the reader

methodological - qualitative

principles and rules of organizations of a system of inquiry

• inductive process of research

• researchers work with particulars before generalizations, describe details in context, and continually revise questions

Why use qualitative methods?

• topics that need to be explored (not well-understood)

• Generating details description and understanding

• Expressing individuals’ experiences

• Natural settings and real-world problems

Qualitative designs

• phenomenology

• grounded theory

• ethnography

• narrative research

• case study

qualitative design characteristics

• search for meaning, understanding, or process (often in context)

• Use an inductive approach

• Researcher as the primary tool for data collection or analysis

• The end product is richly descriptive

Narrative research

• focus: explore the life of the individual

• problem: tell the stories of individual experiences

Phenomenology

• focus: understand the essence of the experience

• problem: describe the essence of a lived phenomenon

• Key characteristics: focus on people’s direct, lived experiences and looks for what is common across participants’ experiences

Grounded Theory

focus: develop a theory grounded in data from the field

problem: ground a theory in the view of participants

ethnographic research

• focus: describe and interpret a culture-sharing group

• problem: describe and interpret the shared patterns of culture of a group

Case study

• focus: develop an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases

• provide an in-depth understanding of a case or cases

bracketing

• phenomenology

• setting aside researcher assumptions and bias

purposeful sampling

• phenomenology

• recruit people who have experienced the phenomenon

data collection

• phenomenology

• conduct in-depth interviews to explore lived experiences

analysis reduction - whole-part-whole

• phenomenology

• 1. Whole - read the interviews as a whole

• 2. Part - identify important statements (meaning units) using horizontalization

• 3. Whole - group similar meanings into themes

outcome

• phenomenology

• identify common themes across participants (thematic analysis), describe the essense of the experience

horizontalization

• phenomenology

• all statements start equally important and valuable

reduction

• phenomenology

• process of identifying the essence of the phenomenon

grounded theory - key characteristics

• focuses on process and patterns to build theory

• theory emerges from the data grounded in the world

• uses iterative data collection and analysis

• continues until theoretical saturiation

Theoretical saturation

• grounded theory

• the point at which continued data collection stops providing new insights for the developing theoy

Theoretical sampling

• grounded theory

• resampling to develop a richer theory

• after initial interviews, identity areas where more depth is needed (Ex: early vs late in process, men vs women, etc)

• Expand or adjust the sample accordingly

Open coding

• grounded theory process

• break transcripts into meaningful units and label them as codes

constant comparison

• grounded theory key process

• compare codes across participants to identify patterns and differences

axial coding

• grounded theory key process

• group related code into broader categories and identify relationships

selective coding

• grounded theory key process

• integrate categories around a central process to develop a theory

ethnography - key characteristics

• researcher is immersed in the group’s natural setting (“fieldwork”)

• focuses on group/cultures (Ex: communities, programs, institutions, organizations)

• understands experiences from the cultural group’s perspective

emic

• ethnography term

• insider’s perspective - meaning as understood by members of the culture

etic

• ethnography term

• outsider/analyst perspective - researcher's interpretation of cultural meaning

ethnography key processes

• observation

• interviews

• field notes

• cultural objects/documents

• observation guide to structure field observations

• findings are typically presented in a rich, descriptive narrative

case study - key characteristics

• bounded system

• can involve a single case or multiple cases

• defined by the unit of analysis (the case), not by the research topic

bounded system

• key characteristic of case study

• a clearly defined unit of study, bounded by time, place, activity or group

• ex: one person, one program, one school, one policy

Case study - key processes

• select a case based on typicality, uniqueness, success, etc.

• collect in-depth data from multiple sources (interviews, observations, documents, photos)

• Report a case description and case themes

narrative research - key characteristics

• focuses on individual stories and lived experiences

• people make sense of experiences by organizing events into narratives

• Data are typically first-person narratives (interviews, oral histories, journals, biographies)

Narrative research - key processes

• collect stories

• re-storying: reorganize participants’ accounts into a coherent story

• Identify key events, turning points, interactions, and context

• Preserve participant’s voice and meaning, often collaboratively

focus groups

• collect info from small groups at the same time

• Common experience or characteristic

• Moderation guides

• Key strength: people can build on each other’s ideas

• Consider group dynamics

case study

To provide an in-depth description of how one community-based rehabilitation program supports participation in daily activities among adult with disabilities.

ethnography

To describe and interpret shared patterns of daily routines among residents of an assisted living community

phenomenology

to describe the essence of lived experience of losing independence in daily activities among older adults

ethnography

to understand the shared culture of an inpatient rehabilitation unit and how it shapes engagement in occupational therapy

grounded theory

to develop a theory explaining how a family caregivers decide when and how much assistance to provide to a person with dementia during daily activities

narrative research

to explore the life story of a stroke survivor returning to meaningful daily activities after stroke

narrative research

to explore the personal journey of an OT working in a rural community

case study

to develop an in-depth understanding of how one OT program implements a smart-home intervention for older adults with cognitive impairment

grounded theory

to develop a theory explaining the process by which stroke survivors adapt their daily routines after returning home from rehabilitation

phenomenology

to understand the lived experience of returning to work after spinal cord injury

preparing for a qualitative interview

understand your research, ethical considerations, developing interview questions

Understand your research

• review relevant literature

• Clarify your research questions and research objectives

• 1. What is already known 2. What is not known (gap) 3. What needs to be studied 4. Research objectives/questions

Ethical considerations

obtain IRB/ethics approval

develop an informed consent process

protect anonymity and confidentiality

consider vulnerable populations

Developing interview questions

• questions should be open-ended, clear and concise

• avoid leading or biased questions

• test your question for clarity and relevance

common interview mistakes to avoid

• leading questions

• over-empathizing

• overlooking non-verbal cues

strategies for effective interviews

• rapport building

• active listening

Rigor and Trustworthiness in qualitative research

• how can we ensure our research has been carried out rigorously, systematically, and carefully

• How do we know the findings are trustworthy?

• Steps and decisions the qualitative researcher makes to enhance how fairly and accurately the data are represented

• Result in more trustworthy findings

Credibility

Is it believable?

There is confidence in “truth” of the findings

The extents to which research findings correspond with reality

transferability

does it apply elsewhere?

Can findings be transferred to other people in similar situations?

If study is transferrable, similar participants & research methods should result in similar

results

dependability

Is the process consistent and traceable?

The extent to which the research process is logical, consistent, traceable, and clearly

documented so that others can understand how findings were developed from the data.

Confirmability

Are findings grounded in data rather than researcher preference?

The impartiality and objectivity of the findings.

Findings remain unaffected by the biases or preferences of the researchers.

prolonged engagement, member checking, triangulation, negative case analysis, reflexivity

Which components fall under credibility

thick description and purposive sampling

Which components fall under transferability

audit trail, triangulation

which components fall under dependability

audit trail, triangulation, peer debriefing, member checking, reflexivity

which components fall under confirmability

prolonged engagement

Spend adequate time in the field

Building rapport with participants to understand their perspectives deeply

member checking

Participant validation

Raw data, preliminary themes, interpretations/findings back to participants

to verify accuracy

triangulation

Using multiple sources to validate findings

Variety of data sources, methods, researchers, and theories

E.g., interviews + observations

negative case analysis

Considering alternative interpretations of data and reevaluating them by

referring to data segments that tend to contradict the researcher’s

reconstruction of reality

thick description

The process of reporting study procedures and data analysis methods in extensive detail

purposive sampling

Purposefully choosing participants to represent different experiences, ideas, attitudes, or behaviors in the study

audit trail

Keep an audit trail of research decisions, changes, and data analysis processes to ensure traceability

Documenting decisions and their rationale throughout all aspects of study design and implementation

peer debriefing

Engage with colleagues or experts to review interpretations and findings, minimizing researcher bias

reflexivity

Acknowledge and critically reflect on how personal biases and

preconceptions influence the research process