geology final boss

What is the primary difference between James Ussher’s and James Hutton’s views on Earth's age?

C) Ussher advocated Catastrophism (~6,000 years old); Hutton advocated Uniformitarianism (ancient Earth).

In scientific methodology, how does a hypothesis differ from a scientific theory?

B) A hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation; a theory is a well-tested, widely accepted explanation supported by extensive evidence.

Which list correctly orders the Phanerozoic Era’s three main eras from OLDEST to YOUNGEST?

B) Paleozoic then Mesozoic then Cenozoic

Which Earth layers are correctly paired with their mechanical (physical) behavior?

B) Lithosphere = Rigid/brittle outer shell; Asthenosphere = Ductile/plastic upper mantle

Why was Alfred Wegener's Continental Drift hypothesis originally rejected by the scientific community?

C) He could not provide a plausible driving mechanism for how continents moved through ocean floors.

At which type of plate boundary is lithosphere NEITHER created nor destroyed?

D) Transform boundary

What is the fundamental building block of silicate minerals, and what is its net chemical charge?

C) Silica Tetrahedron (SiO4/4-); charge of -4

As silicate mineral structures progress from isolated tetrahedra to framework structures, what happens to their chemical stability at Earth's surface?

A) Surface stability increases.

Which type of atomic bonding involves the sharing of valence electrons between atoms and forms the strongest chemical bonds?

B) Covalent bonding

According to Bowen's Reaction Series, which silicate mineral crystallizes FIRST from a cooling magma at the highest temperatures?

C) Olivine

An igneous rock with a porphyritic texture indicates which cooling history?

B) Slow cooling deep underground followed by rapid cooling near or at the surface.

Which magma composition has the HIGHEST silica content and HIGHEST viscosity?

C) Felsic (Rhyolitic/Granitic)

Which description correctly pairs lava flow type with its physical characteristics?

C) Pahoehoe = High temp, low viscosity, smooth and ropy surface

How do you distinguish a Sill from a Dike?

B) Sills are concordant (parallel to rock layers); Dikes are discordant (cut across rock layers).

What is Stone Mountain in Georgia an example of?

B) Igneous Stock / Plutonic body made of granite

Why does water expand when it freezes, contributing to frost wedging?

B) Hydrogen bonding creates an open hexagonal crystalline lattice in ice that takes up ~9% more space than liquid water.

In an ideal soil profile, which horizon is known as the zone of leaching/eluviation?

C) E horizon

Which of the following processes is a form of chemical weathering?

C) Hydrolysis of feldspar into clay

What are the four core steps in forming a detrital/clastic sedimentary rock?

B) Weathering then Erosion/Transport then Deposition then Lithification

Which sedimentary rock is composed of poorly sorted, highly angular clasts, indicating minimal transport distance from its source?

C) Breccia

Which sedimentary rock is biochemical/organic, forms in oxygen-poor swamp environments, and contains high concentrations of carbon?

B) Coal

What is the correct order of foliated metamorphic rocks from LOWEST metamorphic grade to HIGHEST metamorphic grade?

C) Slate then Phyllite then Schist then Gneiss

If you have two white metamorphic rock samples (Marble and Quartzite), how can you definitively tell them apart in a lab?

B) Marble fizzes with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl); Quartzite does not.

What type of pressure produces a foliated texture in metamorphic rocks?

C) Differential stress (Directed pressure)

In an eroded Anticline, where are the OLDEST rock layers exposed?

B) In the center along the fold axis.

What type of tectonic stress produces a Normal Fault, and how do the fault blocks move relative to each other?

B) Tensional stress; Hanging wall moves DOWN relative to Footwall.

Which stratigraphic principle states that in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, older layers lie beneath younger layers?

C) Principle of Superposition

Which statement correctly describes the behavior of P-waves and S-waves passing through Earth's interior?

C) P-waves (compressional) travel through solids, liquids, and gases; S-waves (shear) pass ONLY through solids.

What is the difference between an earthquake's focus (hypocenter) and its epicenter?

B) Focus is the underground origin along the fault; Epicenter is the point on Earth's surface directly above the focus.

What seismic boundary marks the boundary between Earth's crust and mantle?

C) Mohorovičić (Moho) Discontinuity

Which property describes a rock's capacity to transmit fluids through interconnected pore spaces?

C) Permeability

An aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable layers (aquitards) and is under pressure is called a(n):

C) Confined aquifer

Where is the majority of Earth's liquid freshwater stored?

C) Groundwater

How is stream discharge ($Q$) calculated?

B) Discharge = Cross-Sectional Area (A) x Stream Velocity (V)

Which drainage pattern resembles branching tree roots and typically forms on uniform, horizontal, undeformed bedrock?

C) Dendritic

Along a meandering river stream curve, where do maximum water velocity and active erosion occur?

B) Outside of the bend (Cutbank)

When a groin or jetty is built perpendicular to a shoreline, what pattern of sediment deposition and erosion occurs due to longshore drift?

B) Sediment builds up on the updrift side; severe erosion occurs on the downdrift side.

At what depth does a deep-water ocean wave begin to "feel bottom" and transform into a wave of translation?

B) When water depth is equal to half the wavelength (Depth = L/2).

What alignment of the Sun, Earth, and Moon produces the highest tidal ranges (Spring Tides)?

B) Sun, Earth, and Moon aligned in a straight line (Full Moon and New Moon).

How does increasing water saturation affect the stability of an unconsolidated sediment slope?

B) Saturated water fills pore spaces, increases pore fluid pressure, reduces friction, and causes slope failure.

What is the maximum angle at which loose, unconsolidated sediment remains stable without sliding downslope?

B) Angle of Repose

Which type of mass wasting process moves extremely slowly (millimeters/centimeters per year) and is evidenced by curved tree trunks, tilted telephone poles, and cracked retaining walls?

C) Creep