Study Guide to Exam 2 BSC1005

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

one has a plasma membrane, DNA molecule, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and cell wall; the other includes all organisms except for bacteria, cyanobacteria, and archaebacteria; no nucleus vs nucleus

Human Microbiome Project (HMP)

(2008) A project of the National Institutes of Health to identify microbial inhabitants of the human body and their role in health and disease; uses metagenomic techniques instead of culturing.

gut microbiome

the bacteria and other organisms that live inside our gastrointestinal tract

functions of the gut microbiome

●integral to host digestion and nutrition

●generates nutrients from substrates that are otherwise indigestible by the host

●plays a vital role in synthesizing vitamins B and K

●can produce a range of neuroactive molecules

Gut-Brain Axis

One influences neurotransmitters, stress/anxiety, mood, and behavior; the other influences motility, secretion, nutrient delivery, and microbial balance

skin microbiome

(harmless) microorganisms that live on the surface of human skin and make up the normal skin flora

Functions of the skin microbiome

●Acts as a physical barrier to pathogens while providing a home to

resident microbiota

●protects against the entry of pathogens that cause disease by limiting the nutrients and space

available for pathogenic microbes

●Increases the acidity of the skin making it even more inhospitable to many pathogens

disbyosis

disruption of microbiota; can cause multiple cognitive conditions

Why animals need to eat

1. Energy: to obtain energy to fuel

activity (e.g. generate ATP)

2. Nutrients: to obtain essential

nutrients (e.g. amino acids,

vitamins, and minerals)

What animals need to eat

●enough calories to fuel activity and includes adequate

levels of essential nutrients.

● Water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids are

needed in large quantities

● Vitamins and minerals are required in

small amounts

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches in fruits, vegetables, cereals and other grains

Lipids

Oil, margarine, salad dressings, meat, fish, poultry, nuts, fried foods, dairy products made with whole milk

Proteins

Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, dried beans and peas, soybeans, cereal products, milk, cheese, yogurt

Minerals

Widespread in veggies and other foods

Vitamins

Widespread in foods; plant foods are a good source of antioxidants

Water

Widespread in foods, beverages

Primary Physiological Roles of Carbohydrates

Glucose is metabolized for energy; fiber adds to fecal bulk, preventing constipation

Primary Physiological Roles for Lipids

Tryglicerides are metabolized for energy and stored for insulation and protection of organs. Cholesterol is used to make certain hormones, bile, and vitamin D.

Primary Physiological Roles for Proteins

Proteins are needed for building, repairing, and maintaining tissues; synthesizing enzymes and certain hormones; and producing antibodies

Primary Physiological Roles for Minerals

Regulation of energy metabolism, maintenance of fluid balance, and production of certain structures, enzymes, and hormones

Primary Physiological Roles for Vitamins

Regulation of metabolism and physiological development

Primary Physiological Roles for Water

Participant in many chemical reactions; needed for maintenance of body fluids, temperature regulation, joint lubrication, and transportation of material in cells and the body

Carbohydrates are ___

macronutrients

Lipids are _

macronutrients

Proteins are __

macronutrients

Minerals are _

micronutrients

Vitamins are _

micronutrients

Is water a micronutrient or a macronutrient?

Neither!

Considered "fuel"

Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Protein

Considered to be "nutrients"

Lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins

and _ are both considered fuel and nutrients

Lipids and Proteins

Macronutrients vs. Micronutrients

One constitutes the majority of an individual's diet; the other consists of vitamins and trace minerals.

Simple sugars (monosaccharides)

building blocks of carbohydrates; glucose, fructose, galactose

Dissacharides

A sugar containing two monosaccharides. Ex: sucrose which is fructose + glucose; sucrose, lactose, maltose

complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

compounds comprised of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded together; starch, glycogen, fiber

Saturated fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms; solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fats

A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.

Trans fat

An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.

essential amino acids

Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eatin in foods; includes histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine

How essential amino acids are related to a "complete" protein

Vitamins are

organic molecules that are required in small amounts and cannot be synthesized by the body

Vitamins _

have a variety of functions, but many act as coenzymes/cofactors (accessory molecules required by enzymes to function)

Components of a Healthy Diet

adequate, moderate, balanced, varied;

●Fats, oils, and sweets (sparingly)

●Milk, yogurt, and cheese groups (2-3 servings)

●Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs, and Nuts Group (2-3 servings)

●Fruit Group (2-4 servings)

●Veggie Group (3-5 servings)

●Bread, Cereal, Rice, and Pasta Group (6-11 servings)

unprocessed food

which have not been treated with chemicals that preserve them or give them extra taste or colour

processed food

foods that have been treated to change their physical, chemical, microbiological, or sensory properties; commercially prepared food bought for convenience

Ultraprocessed foods

Cheap, ready to consume, high in fat and sugar, and low in fiber

Obesity

having an excess amount of body fat; quality of being excessively overweight

BMI (body mass index)

a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters, a measure of body weight relative to height; used to measure obesity

obesity health risks

premature death

• type 2 diabetes

• heart disease

• stroke

• hypertension

• gallbladder disease

• osteoarthritis (degeneration of cartilage and bone in joints)

• sleep apnea

• asthma.

• breathing problems

• cancer (endometrial, colon, kidney, gallbladder, and postmenopausal breast cancer)

• high blood cholesterol

• complications of pregnancy

• menstrual irregulanties

and facial hair)

caused by weak pelvic-floor muscles)

• increased surgical risk

depression

social stigmatization

• hirsutism (presence of excess body

• stress incontinence (urine leakage

• psychological disorders such as

• psychological difficulties due to social stigmatization

Negative feedback loops

Stimulus is sensed by a sensor, processed, and the effect acts to reduce the thing causing the stimulus.

_ can be used to keep things in a state of homeostasis (like a constant temperature in your apartment)

Negative feedback loops

Diabetes

Otherwise known as Diabetes mellitus; is defined as a condition characterized by prolonged hyperglycemia [elevated blood glucose levels] resulting from the body's inability to regulate blood sugar

Type I Diabetes

(10%) - body does not produce insulin