Psychology Around Us – Chapter 8: Memory

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts related to memory, based on the Chapter 8 lecture from Psychology Around Us.

Memory

The process of recalling past events and learning through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

Getting information into memory in the first place.

Storage

Retaining encoded information for future use.

Retrieval

Recapturing stored information when it is needed.

Information-Processing Model (IPM)

Theory proposing that information moves through sensory, working, and long-term memory during encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Parallel Distributed-Processing Model (Connectionist Model)

Theory that memories are stored as patterns of activation across neural networks rather than in discrete stages.

Sensory Memory

Brief memory store that holds sensory information for fractions of a second (iconic and echoic).

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting up to about ½ second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 2–4 seconds.

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

Temporary store that holds information for about 30 seconds and has a capacity of 5–9 items.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse for information.

Automatic Processing

Encoding that occurs with little or no conscious effort (e.g., time, space, frequency).

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious attention and deliberate effort (e.g., studying).

Attention

Focusing mental resources on information to enable encoding.

Rehearsal

Consciously repeating information to ensure it is encoded.

Spaced Practice Effect

Enhanced long-term retention achieved by distributing study sessions over time.

Phonological Encoding

Encoding information based on sound.

Visual Encoding

Encoding information based on how it looks.

Eidetic (Photographic) Memory

Exceptionally vivid and detailed visual memory.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding information based on its meaning.

Mnemonic Device

Technique that increases meaningfulness of information to improve memory (e.g., HOMES).

Chunking

Grouping bits of information together to expand working-memory capacity.

Schema

Cognitive framework that organizes and interprets information based on prior experience.

PQRST Method

Five-step study strategy: Preview, Question, Read, Self-Recitation, Test.

Memory Span

The maximum number of items that can be recalled in correct order from working memory.

Explicit Memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and personal events.

Implicit Memory

Memory expressed through performance without conscious recall, such as skills and habits.

Semantic Memory

Explicit memory for general world knowledge and facts.

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory for personal experiences and events.

Procedural Memory

Implicit memory for motor skills and habits.

Classically Conditioned Memory

Implicit memory involving learned emotional or physiological responses to stimuli.

Priming

Facilitation of retrieval caused by prior exposure to related information.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list better than middle items.

Primacy Effect

Enhanced recall of items presented first after a delay.

Recency Effect

Enhanced recall of items presented most recently when tested immediately.

Retrieval Cue

Stimulus that helps trigger recall of information stored in memory.

Context Effect

Improved recall when retrieval occurs in the same environment where learning took place.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is best when conditions at retrieval match those at encoding (context, mood, state).

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when internal state at retrieval matches state at learning.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event; not necessarily accurate.

Forgetting

Inability to recall information previously encoded.

Decay Theory

Proposes that memory traces fade over time if not used.

Interference Theory

Forgetting occurs because other information competes with the material to be remembered.

Proactive Interference

Older information disrupts the recall of newer information.

Retroactive Interference

New information disrupts access to previously learned information.

Motivated Forgetting

Forgetting of unpleasant or anxiety-provoking information, often unconscious.

Repression

Unconscious process that prevents traumatic memories from entering awareness.

Source Misattribution

Remembering information but attributing it to the wrong source.

Imagination Inflation

Memory distortion caused by imagining events that never occurred.

Misinformation Effect

Distortion or creation of memories due to exposure to misleading information.

Memory Consolidation

Process by which memories become stable in the brain over time.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Increased likelihood of neural firing after repeated stimulation, thought to underlie learning and memory.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall episodic memories from before roughly age four.

Prospective Memory

Ability to remember to perform an action in the future.

Retrospective Memory

Ability to remember information from the past.

Amnestic Disorder

Organic disorder where memory loss is the primary symptom.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

Dementia

Severe memory loss accompanied by declines in other cognitive functions.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by dementia, plaques, and tangles.

Senile Plaque

Protein fragment deposits that accumulate between neurons in Alzheimer’s disease.

Neurofibrillary Tangle

Twisted fibers inside neurons associated with Alzheimer’s disease.