Anatomy Unit 2

Hematology

The study of blood

Three principle functions of blood

1. Communication: connective tissue conveys messages in the form of hormones

2. Transport: primary circulatory function; transports gases, ions, and wastes

3. Defense: immune function; carries immune cells and inflammatory proteins to protect from pathogens and repair vessels

Hematocrit

The measurement of how much of someone’s blood is made up of red blood cells

Composition of Blood

Plasma: 55%

Leukocytes/platelets: 1%

Erythrocytes (RBC): 44%

Homeostatic set point range for blood pH

7.35-7.45; basic compared to neutral

Tightly regulated pH range for blood

To prevent denaturation

Lifespan of RBC

120 days

Hemoglobin

Key protein for O2 and CO2 transportation. Red color because of the concentration of oxidized iron.

Erythropoesis

formation of a new red blood cell. Ingredients needed: hemoglobin raw materials (iron, amino acids, and heme), vitamins that support cell division (folate, vitamin B12), Erythroprotein, EPO (a hormonal signal to stimulate erythropoiesis)

RBC end of life

After 120 days they are brought over to the spleen or liver where they are broken down and recycled. The iron is transferred back to the red bone marrow to be reused to make another RBC.

Plasma

made up of proteins and ions. is the extracellular matrix of blood.

Leukocyte

white blood cells. the buffy coat of the hematocrit. Have a nuclei but no hemoglobin.

Granulocytes

many granules or dots in the cytoplasm

Agranulocytes

do not have or very small amounts of granules or dot

3 types of Granulocytes

1. Neutrophil: Anti-bacterial

2. Eosinophil: Anti-parasitic

3. Basophil: Histamine (allergies)

2 types of Agranulocytes

1. Lymphocyte: Ant-viral (cancer)

2. Macrophage: phagocytosis (pac-man)

White blood cell lifespan

Leukocytes: Few days during infection or few hours

Lymphocytes: B and T cells for several months or even years

Hemostasis

sequence of responses to stop blood loss from a damaged blood vessel.

3 hemostasis mechanisms

1. Vascular spasm: Contraction of smooth muscle to prevent further bleeding

2. Platelet plug formation: gathering platelets and chemical signals to block the bleeding

3. Blood clotting: formation of clot. Vitamin K is essential. Primarily composed of protein fibrin.

The clotting Cascade

vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation (clotting), clot retraction, thrombolysis

Thrombolysis

The enzymatic breakdown of fibrin which is primarly mediated by the liver which secretes antithrombin and by basophils which secrete heparin.

Blood type

Refers to the specific set of glycoproteins and antigens that are displayed on the surface of RBC

Type A

Antigen A is present

Anti-body B is present

Can only receive from A and O

Can donate to A and AB

Type B

Antigen B present

Anti-body A present

Can only receive from B and O

Can only donate to B and AB

Type AB

Antigen A present

Antigen B present

no antibodies

Can receive from anyone

Can only donate to AB

Type O

Antibody A present

Antibody B present

no antigens

Can receive from O

Can donate to anyone

Rh blood group

Positive: Rh antigen is present

Negative: Rh antigen is absent

Respiratory system Organs

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs, alveolus

Bones and borders of the nasal cavity

Frontal sinus, nasal bone, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, septal cartilage, vomer, maxilla, palatine, sphenoid sinus, sphenoid bone, ethmoid bone (crista galli, cribiform, plate)

Paranasal Sinuses

Frontal sinus, ethmoid sinus, sphenoid sinus, maxillary sinus

Pharynx

1. Nasopharynx: from posterior nasal cavity to the soft palate

2. Oropharynx: from the soft palate to the epiglottis

3. Laryngopharynx: from the epiglottis to the larynx

Pharynx structures

Nasopharynx: Adenoid/pharyngeal tonsils, eustachian/auditory tube

Oropharynx: palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils

Laryngopharynx: epiglottis, opening to larynx

Larynx anterolateral

hyoid bone, thyrohyoid membrane, thyroid cartilage, cricothyroid membrane, cricoid cartilage, tracheal cartilage

Larynx posterior

Hyoid bone, epiglottis, thyrohyoid membrane, thyroid cartilage, arytenoid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, tracheal cartilage

Epiglottis

cartilage that is covered in mucosa. this moves during swallowing routing the food and liquids into the esophagus preventing it from going to the trachea

Trachea

Divides the bronchi into the right and left primary. made up of hyaline cartilage rings

Carina

bottom of the trachea, helps you sense that something has fallen into your trachea and triggers the coughing reflex

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

allows for mucous to be moved up and out of the trachea, preventing it from obstructing the smaller, distal airways

The bronchial tree

branching sequence of airways including the trachea and the various dividing branches of the bronchi/bronchioles

Bronchi pulmonary segment

smallest surgical removal part of lung

Visceral plerua

Covers each lung and is tightly adhered to the surface of the lung itself. goes in between and is the inner line

Partietal plerua

lines the wall of the thoracic cavity and forms a distinct chamber for each lung to sit. does not go in between and is the outer line

Number of lobes each lung has

Right: 3

Left: 2

What fissures on in each lobe of the lungs

Right: Horizontal, oblique

Left: Oblique

Type 1 alveolar cells

Simple squamous epithelial cells for diffusion

Type 2 alveolar cells

Rounded cuboidal cells, produce surfactant

Alveolar macrophages

Immune cells- monocyte (phagocytosis)

Trachea- carina epithelium

Epithelium: pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar

Respiratory Division: Lower

Functional Zone: conducting

Bronchi (1 and 2) epithelium

Epithelium: simple ciliated columnar

Respiratory Division: Lower

Functional Zone: conducting

3 bronchi- terminal bronchiole epithelium

Epithelium: simple columnar/ cuboidal

Respiratory Division: Lower

Functional Zone: conducting

Respiratory bronchiole- alveolar duct epithelium

Epithelium: simple cuboidal/squamous

Respiratory Division: Lower

Functional Zone: respiratory

Pulmonary ventilation

How air gets into and out of lungs (inhalation/exhalation)

External respiration

How oxygen diffuses from lungs to bloodstream

gas exchange at the lungs (CO2 diffuses out)

Transport of gases

How O2/CO2 travel through CV and blood to the tissue

Gas traveling in the bloodstream

Internal respiration

how O2 diffuses into tissues and CO2 diffuses out

gas exchanges at the target tissue

Boyle’s law

The pressure exerted by a gas is inversely proportional to its volume

As the thorax expands, intrapulmonary pressure falls below atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure

760 mmHg

Principles of Ventilation

Surface tension of alveolar fluid

Compliance of lung tissue

Airway resistance