PSY EXAM 2

Marshall segall, donald Campbell, melville herskovits

Performed multinational study in which they demonstrated that individuals from western cultures were more prone to experience certain types of visual illusions than individuals from non western cultures, and vice versa, COINED THE TERM CARPENTERED WORLD

Sensation

When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

Daniel Simons and Christopher chabris

Tested how important attention is in determining our perception, teams dressed black and white while gorilla went thru

Webers law

The difference threshold is a constant fraction of the original stimulus

Perception

The interpretation and organization of sensory information to form a meaningful experience of the world

Subliminal messages

Messages that are presented below the threshold for conscious awareness

Muller-lyer illusion

The lines appear to be different lengths but they are actually the same length

Afterimage

The continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus.

If you stare briefly at the sun or a bright lightbulb and then look away, you will continue to perceive a glowing spot of light even though the physical stimulus is gone.

Negative Afterimages

When color is involved, removing the stimulus causes you to see the image in its complementary/opposite colors (e.g., staring at green leaves a red afterimage). This happens because your color receptors become fatigued, which supports the opponent-process theory of color vision.

Amplitude

The distance from the center line to the top point of the crest or the bottom point of the trough

Wavelength

The length of a wave from one peak to the next

Frequency

refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz)

Hertz

cycles per second

Role of amplitude and wavelengths in sound levels

Longer wavelengths will have lower frequencies, and shorter wavelengths will have higher frequencies

Pitch

High-frequency sound waves are perceived as high-pitched sounds, while low-frequency sound waves are perceived as low-pitched sounds

Amplitude loudness

The loudness of a given sound is closely associated with the amplitude of the sound wave. Higher amplitudes are associated with louder sounds. Loudness is measured in terms of decibels (dB), a logarithmic unit of sound intensity.

Night blindness

If your rods do not transform light into nerve impulses as easily and efficiently as they should, you will have difficulty seeing in dim light

Optic nerve

Carries visual information from the retina to the brain

Binocular Disparity

Because your eyes are physically located in different positions on your face (separated by a few inches), each eye has a slightly different angle on the world.

The vestibular sense

The inner ear contains the semi-circular canals, which are involved in balance and movement

contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture.

It relies on three fluid-filled structures: the utricle, the saccule, and the three semicircular canals.

Deafness

Partial or complete inability to hear

Congenital deafness

Born without hearing

Conductive hearing loss

Problem delivering sound energy to the cochlea. Causes for conductive hearing loss include blockage of the ear canal, a hole in the tympanic membrane, problems with the ossicles, or fluid in the space between the eardrum and cochlea

Sensorineural hearing loss

most common form of hearing loss,

failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain

Has many factors, such as aging, head or acoustic trauma, infections and diseases, medications, environmental effects such as noise exposure, tumors, and toxins

Cochlear implants

Electronic devices that consist of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array. The device receives incoming sound information and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain

Ménière's disease

One disease that results in sensorineural hearing loss

Taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction)

called chemical senses because both have sensory receptors that respond to molecules in the food we eat or in the air we breathe

Max Wertheimer

Gestalt psychology

demonstrating that individuals perceived motion in rapidly flickering static images

believed that perception involved more than simply combining sensory stimuli

the brain creates a perception that is more than simply the sum of available sensory inputs, and it does so in predictable ways

Figure-ground relationship

Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background

we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground

Proximity

This principle asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together

Continuity

Suggests that we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines

Closure

We organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts

Constructivist Theory of perception

Jean Piaget, suggests that perception is an active process in which individuals construct their understanding of the world based on their experiences and interactions

Reflexes

Motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment, SIMPLER THAN INSTINCTS, SPINAL CORD AND MEDULLA MORE PRIMITIVE

Instincts

Innate behaviors triggered by broad range of events, such as maturation, and the change of seasons they are more complex patterns of behavior, involve movement of the organism as a whole, involve higher brain centers

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience

Associative learning

Occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment

Classical conditioning

Known as Pavlovian conditioning, organisms learn to associate events or stimuli that repeatedly happened together, Involves Unconscious Processes

Operant Conditioning

Organisms learn to Associate events – a behavior and it’s consequence(Reinforcement or punishment), Involve conscious processes

Observational learning

Extend the effective range of both classical and operant conditioning, is the process of watching others in an imitating what they do

Ivan Pavlov (CLASSICAL conditioning)

Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and as best known for experiments in classical conditioning. realized that organism has two types of responses to its environment, unconditioned or unlearned responses/Reflexes and conditioned/learned responses

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a reflective response in an organism

Unconditioned response

A natural or unlearned reaction to a given stimulus

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not Naturally elicits A response, End up becoming the conditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

Higher order/2nd order conditioning

When the conditioned stimulus(The doctors office) serves to condition another stimulus(Syringe), pairing a new neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus

Acquisition period classical conditioning

The initial period of learning, organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

during this period, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the condition response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the condition response by itself

Taste Aversion

Type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus

Rescorla-Wagner model

The mathematical formula that could be used to calculate the probability that an association would be learned given the ability of a condition stimulus to predict the occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus and other factors

Extinction

The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest

Stimulus discrimination

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar

Stimulus generalization

When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, is the opposite of stimulus discrimination

Behaviorism

Founded by John Watson, School of thought that arose during the first part of the 20th century which incorporates elements of Pavlov’s classical conditioning. John Watson asserted that psychology must focus on outward observable behavior that can be measured

Little Albert experiment

Led by John Watson, let to emotions being part of conditioning and become conditioned responses

Law of effect

Proposed by Edward Thorndike, Behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

B.F Skinner

Developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences

Positive reinforcement

Something is added to INCREASE the likelihood of a behavior, most effective way to teach a person or animal, A desirable stimulus is added to increase behavior

Negative reinforcement

Undesirable stimulus is removed to INCREASE the likelihood of a behavior

Positive punishment

Something is added to DECREASE the likelihood of a behavior

Negative punishment

Something is removed to DECREASE the likelihood of a behavior

Shaping

Rewarding, successive approximations of target behavior

Successive approximations

Responses that resemble the desired behavior

Primary reinforcer

Have innate reinforcing qualities, water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch are primary reinforcers

Secondary reinforcer

No inherent value, and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer such as praise or money

experience

How behavior changes overtime,

Whether that experience means interacting with a paired trigger (classical conditioning), facing a consequence like a reward or punishment (operant conditioning), or watching someone else do it (observational learning)

Continuous reinforcement

When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior

Gambling

is part of the variable – ratio reinforcement schedule

Latent learning

Learning that occurs, but it’s not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it, Can also be how watching others help us learn

Modeling

Person Demonstrating a behavior to be imitated, Can be live, verbal or symbolic. Live means in person, verbal can mean explain or describe behavior without doing the behavior, symbolic can be from books, movies, TV shows or Internet sources

Social learning theory

Idea that we learn and adapt our behaviors by watching others, rather than having to experience every consequence or stimulus firsthand

Bandura

research modeling behavior, particularly children’s modeling of adults aggressiveness, and violent behaviors

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Vicarious reinforcement

When a model is reinforced for their behavior, you’ll be more motivated to copy them

Vicarious punishment

When a model is punished for the behavior, you’re going to be less likely to copy them

Aggression and children

When a child sees the teacher being aggressive, if the teacher is not punished, the children will copy the behavior, if the teacher is punished, The children will not copy the behavior

Four steps of modeling process

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Cognition

Considered thinking, and encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem-solving, judgment, language, and memory

Concepts

Are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. Our reference as file cabinet.

prototype

Best example or representation of a concept usually the original

Natural concepts

They are created naturally through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences

Artificial concept

Is a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve us useful examples of these concepts.

Schema

MENTAL construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

Role schema

When you make an assumption about how individuals in certain roles will behave

event schema/cognitive script

Is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine

Lexicon

Words of a given language, The vocabulary of a language

Grammar

Set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of lexicon

Phoneme

Basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of these

Morphemes

Smallest units of language that conveys some type of meaning such as I

Semantics

Refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Syntax

Refers to the way words are organized into sentences

Overgeneralization

Refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule

Trial And error

Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved

Algorithm

Step-by-step problem, solving formula

Heuristic

General problem-solving framework, sometimes working backwards, breaking a task into steps

Mental set

Where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past, but it’s clearly not working

Functional fixedness

Type of Mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for

Anchoring bias

When you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem

Confirmation bias

Tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs

Hindsight bias

Leads you to believe that the event you just experience was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

Representative bias

Describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you make a decision or judgment, based on your perception of the similarity of the person or thing to your existing stereotypes and prior beliefs