Psychology: Conditioning, Learning, and Observational Learning (Lecture Notes)

A comprehensive set of question-and-answer flashcards covering classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, neural mechanisms, and related concepts from the lecture notes.

What is behaviourism, and who were two key proponents mentioned in the notes?

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner; they emphasized observable behaviour over internal mental life and imagined applications for controlling behavior.

What are the two main approaches to learning discussed in the notes?

Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.

How is learning defined in these notes?

Experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

What are other types of learning mentioned besides classical and operant conditioning?

Observational learning and implicit learning (learning outside of awareness).

Define classical conditioning.

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism without prior learning.

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

A reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that is initially neutral and does not produce a reliable response.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the US, now elicits a response.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A learned response that resembles the UR but is produced by the conditioned stimulus.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The phase during which the CS and US are presented together, leading to the CR.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

Gradual elimination of a learned response when the US is no longer presented.

What is second-order conditioning?

A procedure in which a CS is used to acquire another CS’s ability to produce a response (the US may be represented by a CS).

What is spontaneous recovery?

Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period.

What is generalization in classical conditioning?

The CR occurs in response to stimuli that are similar to the original CS.

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.

What is taste aversion, and what explains its rapid learning?

An adaptive tendency to avoid foods that cause illness; often learned rapidly in few trials due to perceptual qualities like taste or smell (biological preparedness).

What is the Little Albert study about?

Watson and Rayner conditioned a 9‑month‑old to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise; demonstrated stimulus generalization and that emotions can be conditioned.

Which brain structures are implicated in different aspects of classical conditioning?

Cerebellum (delay and trace conditioning), hippocampus (especially trace), and amygdala (central nucleus) for fear conditioning.

What evolutionary element of classical conditioning is highlighted?

Taste aversions and biological preparedness—rapid learning for certain associations (e.g., taste/illness) that aid survival.

What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behaviour determine whether it will be repeated.

What is the Law of Effect?

Behaviours followed by a satisfying state of affairs tend to be repeated; those followed by an unpleasant state tend to be suppressed.

What are the ABCs of operant conditioning?

A: Antecedent, B: Behaviour, C: Consequence (reinforcers or punishments).

What is a reinforcer in operant conditioning?

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.

Differentiate positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement adds something desirable to increase a behaviour; negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase a behaviour.

What is a primary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that meets a basic need or is inherently desirable (e.g., food, sex, attention).

What is a secondary (conditioned) reinforcer?

A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing value through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money).

What is the Skinner box (operant chamber)?

A device used to study operant conditioning and track changes in behaviour under different reinforcement schedules.

What are the four main schedules of reinforcement?

Fixed Interval (FI), Variable Interval (VI), Fixed Ratio (FR), Variable Ratio (VR).

What is the delay of reinforcement effect?

Longer delays between a response and reinforcement generally reduce the rate of responding.

What is punishment, and how is it categorized?

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour; divided into Positive Punishment (adding an undesirable stimulus) and Negative Punishment (removing a desirable stimulus).

What are some problems with punishment?

Learning may be non-lasting; individuals may discriminate situations; it can create fear/hatred and model aggression; may not change behaviour long-term.

What are shaping and superstitious behaviour?

Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behaviour. Superstitious behaviour: repeated behaviours reinforced by chance, leading to false causal beliefs.

What is cognitive elements of operant conditioning according to Tolman?

Operant conditioning as a means-ends relationship; latent learning (learning not immediately expressed); cognitive maps (mental representation of environment).

What neural elements are involved in operant conditioning?

Reward centres in the limbic system (dopaminergic pathways) including the medial forebrain bundle, hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens; dopamine relates to reward.

What is reward prediction error, and how is it related to Parkinson’s disease?

Dopamine neurons signal the difference between expected and received rewards; reward-related learning can be impaired in Parkinson’s, with some dopaminergic therapies linked to impulsive behaviours.

What is observational learning?

Learning that occurs by watching the actions of others (Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments).

What is a diffusion chain in observational learning?

Process where individuals learn a behaviour by observing a model, then become models for others to learn from.

What are mirror neurons?

Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action; located in frontal and parietal regions; linked to understanding intention and imitation.

What is enculturation hypothesis in observational learning?

Observational learning in animals shows that humans may imitate more readily; enculturation influences learning and tool use.

What is the role of online learning as described in the notes?

Online platforms (e.g., Coursera) may improve performance and reduce costs via engaging video content and bite-size instruction tailored to learners.