Discovering Psychology: Introduction to Psychology, Research Methods, Neuroscience & Behavior, Learning, Memory, Thinking & Language, Intelligence, Motivation & Emotion

A comprehensive set of practice flashcards covering key concepts from Chapters 1–8 of Discovering Psychology (10th edition), including research methods, neuroscience, learning, memory, thinking and language, intelligence, motivation, and emotion.

What is psychology?

The science of behavior and mental processes.

What are the main goals of psychology?

Describe, predict, explain, and control or influence behavior and mental processes.

What is the scientific method in psychology?

A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures guiding research; events are lawful and explainable; scientists are open-minded and skeptical.

Name two descriptive research methods commonly used in psychology.

Naturalistic observation and surveys (also case studies).

What distinguishes experimental research from descriptive research?

Experimental research manipulates an independent variable to establish cause-and-effect, controlling confounding variables.

Define independent variable.

The factor deliberately manipulated to produce change.

Define dependent variable.

The factor measured to assess the effect of the manipulation.

What is a confounding variable?

An extraneous variable that could affect the dependent variable if not controlled.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable tentative statement about the relationship between variables.

What is a double-blind technique?

Neither participants nor researchers know which treatment participants received.

What is the placebo effect?

A change in behavior due to expectations rather than the treatment itself.

What are APA ethical guidelines for research with humans?

Informed consent, protection from harm, use of deception, confidentiality, debriefing, and voluntary participation.

What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

What is a neuron?

The basic unit of communication in the nervous system; consists of cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

What are glial cells and their roles?

Support neurons; include oligodendrocytes (form myelin), microglia (immune cleanup), and astrocytes (nutrient support).

What is the synapse?

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received.

What are the three major processes of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is sensory memory and its durations?

Brief storage of sensory impressions; iconic memory ~0.25–0.5 seconds; echoic memory ~3–4 seconds.

What is short-term memory capacity and duration without rehearsal?

About 7 ± 2 items; lasts ~20 seconds without maintenance rehearsal.

What is working memory and its components?

Temporary storage and manipulation of information; components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

What are the main types of long-term memory?

Procedural, episodic, autobiographical, and semantic memory; explicit (declarative) vs implicit (nondeclarative).

What is encoding specificity?

Retrieval is more likely when retrieval conditions resemble encoding conditions; context and mood cues matter.

What is the misinformation effect?

Post-event information can distort memories; schemas and source confusion can alter recall.

What is the serial position effect?

Primacy and recency effects: better memory for items at the beginning and end of a list.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, yielding a conditioned response.

Label UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.

UCS: unconditioned stimulus; UCR: unconditioned response; CS: conditioned stimulus; CR: conditioned response.

What is higher-order conditioning?

A conditioned stimulus from one learning trial serves as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial.

What are extinction and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

Extinction: CR decreases when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS; spontaneous recovery: CR reappears after a period without exposure.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process where behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences.

Who formulated the Law of Effect and what does it state?

Thorndike; responses followed by a satisfying outcome become strengthened and more likely to recur.

What is reinforcement vs punishment, and how do they differ?

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior; punishment decreases it. Positive adds, negative removes.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

What are the four schedules of reinforcement?

Fixed-ratio (FR), Variable-ratio (VR), Fixed-interval (FI), and Variable-interval (VI) schedules.

What is latent learning and cognitive map?

Learning can occur without reinforcement; a cognitive map may form, as shown by Tolman.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others; Bandura's work with the Bobo Doll showed modeling and vicarious reinforcement.

What is retrograde vs anterograde amnesia?

Retrograde: loss of past memories; Anterograde: inability to form new memories.

What brain regions are part of the forebrain and limbic system?

Limbic system includes hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus; cerebral cortex; corpus callosum connects hemispheres.

Where are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area located and what do they control?

Broca’s area (left frontal lobe) for speech production; Wernicke’s area (left temporal lobe) for language comprehension.

What is split-brain research and its significance?

Cutting the corpus callosum reveals functional differences between hemispheres, confirming some lateralization of language and spatial abilities.

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system and their functions?

Sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).

What hormones are regulated by the pituitary and adrenal glands, and what controls them?

Pituitary hormones (growth, prolactin, oxytocin) and adrenal hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine); hypothalamus regulates pituitary and autonomic functions.

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience.

Name key brain imaging techniques used in neuroscience.

EEG (electrical activity), PET (metabolic activity), fMRI (blood flow), CT (X-ray anatomy), MRI (high-resolution anatomy), dMRI (neural connections).

What is the thalamus’ role?

Relay station for sensory information (except smell) and distribution of motor information to the cortex.

What is the hypothalamus’ role?

Regulates autonomic nervous system and hormones; influences pituitary function.

What is the amygdala’s role?

Processes emotions, detects threats, and contributes to emotional learning and memory.

What is the hippocampus’ role?

Memory formation and spatial navigation; part of the limbic system.

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and their general functions?

Occipital (visual), Parietal (somatosensory), Temporal (auditory), Frontal (movement, planning, executive control).

Where is language typically localized in the brain?

Left hemisphere; includes Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.

What is the James–Lange theory of emotion?

Emotions arise from the perception of bodily changes; stimulus leads to physiological changes which produce emotion.

What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion?

Emotion and physiological arousal occur independently and simultaneously.

What is the two-factor (Schachter–Singer) theory of emotion?

Emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of the arousal.

What is appraisal theory of emotion?

Emotions result from cognitive appraisal of a situation’s effect on well-being; multiple pathways.

What did Ekman contribute to the study of emotions?

Proposed universal facial expressions for basic emotions; cross-cultural recognition of expressions.

Is a polygraph a reliable detector of lies?

No; it measures physiological arousal associated with emotions, not a unique lie pattern—subject to errors.

What brain region is central to fear and emotional responses?

The amygdala.

What brain region supports emotional regulation and higher-order control?

The prefrontal cortex.

What is displacement in language development?

The ability to talk about things not physically present.

What are prototypes and exemplars in concepts?

Prototype: most typical instance of a category; exemplar: individual instances; both are stored in memory.

What is the role of imagery in cognition?

Mental images share brain areas with perception; similar neural substrates (FFA for faces, PPA for places).

What are the building blocks of thought?

Mental images and concepts.

What is semantic network theory?

Concepts are linked; activation spreads to related ideas; shorter paths imply stronger associations.

What is the serial position effect and its parts?

Primacy effect (first items) and recency effect (last items) in list recall.

What is encoding specificity and context effects?

Retrieval is better when context and mood at retrieval match encoding; context and mood cue retrieval.

What is the misinformation effect and source confusion?

Post-event information can distort memory; source misattribution leads to false memories.

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?

Explicit (declarative) memory includes conscious recall (episodic/semantic); implicit (nondeclarative) memory affects behavior without conscious recall (procedural).

What is the role of memory encoding strategies like elaborative rehearsal and imagery?

Elaborative rehearsal and imagery improve encoding and later recall.

What is the role of sleep in memory consolidation?

Sleep supports memory consolidation and stabilization of memories.

What is the So-called “Flynn effect”?

Generational increases in average IQ scores attributed to environmental changes.

What is intelligence, broadly defined?

The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and adapt to the environment.

What is Spearman’s g factor?

A general intelligence factor underlying performance across diverse cognitive tasks.

What are Gardner’s multiple intelligences and their status?

Eight distinct intelligences; culturally based; not strongly supported by mainstream evidence.

What is Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence?

Analytic, creative, and practical forms of intelligence.

What is the CHC model in intelligence?

Carroll–Horn–Carroll theory: a hierarchical model with g at the top, broad abilities, and narrow abilities.

What is Wechsler’s approach to intelligence testing?

Wechsler scales (WAIS/WISC) use multiple subtests and an overall IQ relative to age group.

What does reliability mean in testing? vs validity?

Reliability: consistency of results; validity: whether a test measures what it intends to measure.

What is the concept of set-point in weight regulation?

The body’s defended weight around which metabolism and hunger regulate.

What is leptin, insulin, and neuropeptide Y in weight regulation?

Long-term signals that help regulate body weight; leptin and insulin decrease appetite, NPY increases it.

What is the role of ghrelin in hunger?

A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite and rises before meals.

What is satiation and its signals?

Feeling of fullness; signals include stretch receptors and CCK slowing gastric emptying.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in hunger and eating?

Regulates autonomic function and links to hormones; influences appetite and energy balance.

What is the difference between mood and emotion?

Moods are milder, longer-lasting, and less specific; emotions are intense, brief, and directed at a target.

What are display rules in emotion?

Cultural norms governing how and when emotions are expressed.

What is the James–Russell framework for core emotion dimensions?

Two dimensions: valence (pleasant-unpleasant) and arousal.

What do Ekman’s findings imply about cross-cultural emotion recognition?

Basic emotions have universal facial expressions recognized across cultures.

What is emotion regulation and its importance?

Managing and modulating emotional responses; involves the prefrontal cortex and adaptive strategies like reappraisal.

What is the role of the amygdala in fear conditioning?

Evaluates threat and generates emotional responses; damage can impair fear conditioning.

What is the difference between forward- and backward-acting interference?

Retroactive interference: new memories interfere with old; proactive interference: old memories interfere with new.

What does the concept of “schemas” imply for memory?

Schemas organize knowledge and can fill in gaps, leading to distortions.

What is the difference between nature and nurture in intelligence?

Genes provide potential; environment shapes expression and development of abilities.

What is cross-cultural bias in testing and the Flynn effect's implication?

Tests can reflect cultural contexts; Flynn effect suggests environmental improvements also raise IQ over generations.

What is infant-directed speech and its significance?

Simplified speech with high pitch used with infants; supports language learning.