Unit G - Urban environments GEO
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105 Terms
Urban area
A built up area that forms a part of a town (Morges, Vevey) or city (Lausanne, Geneva New York) (a hamlet or a village is not considered urban, because they’re too small)
CBD
(Central business district) The centre of commercial activity in an urban place
Residential area
Relating to where people live in the city
Manufacturing - secondary employment sector
Industries that process raw materials. This includes Nestlé factories, chocolate factories,..etc
Services - tertiary employment sector
Refer to people providing a service to others. This includes teachers, doctors, bus drivers, shop assistants, retail, entertainment.
Site
Land on which a settlement is built, which includes physical and human characteristics of a location.
Factors influencing the site and situation of settlements
slope/gradient
Access to water
Ocean
Lake
River
Temperature
Agricultural land/fertile soil
Distance to other settlements
Altitude - more at low altitude - nearer sea level
Accessibility
Situation
Location of settlement in relation to what is around it (eg. a city might be located along a coastline or ISL is located north east to Geneva)
Function
Dominant industry activity (eg. mining or financial centre), it may also refer to the dominant use of a building (eg. a bank or a restaurant)
City 1: Paris → fashion
City 2: Oxford → education
City 3: Washington D.C. → politics
City 4: Geneva → international organisation
Land use
This refers to the dominant pattern of use for an area or district of a settlement.
Eg, a commercial zone or a residential zone.
It can also be substituted for function for buildings.
The use of an area for a particular function (eg. ISL’s land is used for educational purposes)
1) Residential - Le-Mont-Sur-Lausanne
2) Industrial - Crissier
3) For services - St.Francois + Flon + Riponne
4) Open space - Sauvabelin + Montetan
5) For recreation - Vidy
6) Transport routes - Metro
Settlement Hierachy
Names and types of settlements that are placed in a hierarchy. Settlements may also be classified into a hierarchy according to the variation of economic activity in a settlement. Measure of order or importance of settlements based on size range, or influence
Land values
Cost or measure of living on a particular land area.
Centre = highest value - because work, easy access to transportation.
Banks + restaurants want to be in centre/CBD
Range
Maximum distance that people are prepared to travel for a good or service.
Threshold
Minimum number of people required for a good or service to stay in business
Low order goods
Necessity goods or convenience goods bought frequently. Eg. bread + newspapers
High order goods
Luxury or shopping goods bought/used infrequently. Eg. watches + cars
Sphere of influence
How the area affects its surrounding area
New york city is global sphere of influence as it attracts people globally for business, tourism,..etc
A local town only have a sphere of influence on nearby villages - people want to visit there because it has something good - but people in Tokyo wont know about it
Conurbation
A group of large cities and their suburbs that have strong links connecting them to each other.
An urban area incorporating adjacent centres (eg. towns and villages)
Shanghai = conurbation
Bid rent
The prices of land to rent normally per metre squared a year. Value of land varies for different purposes such as commercial, manufacturing or industrial.
Urban renewable/regeneration
Development of activities to increase residential population densities within the existing built up area of a city. Existing area within city + refreshed and made better
Stratford - renewed as part of London 2012 Olympics - put in hotels, transport link
Gentrification
the process whereby the character of a poor urban area is changed by wealthier people moving in, improving housing, and attracting new businesses, often displacing current inhabitants in the process.Poorer people pushed out because they cant afford rent anymore.
Eg. Flon = gentrified
Incomers from other areas take advantage of low property prices + proximity to CBD + live in more historic and characterful area than suburbs
3 Results of gentrification
Improvement of building stock - buildings are improves (not torn down usually) - incomers want to live in high quality accommodation and have the money to improve old buildings
Results in increase in property prices
Demographic change - incomes tend to be more affluent, younger, childless, educated, formal and professional employment
Increase in property prices which forces out traditional inhabitants of area
Economic change - more affluent group of inhabitants = services of poverty (launderettes, hardware stores, cheap cafes) = replaced by services of affluence (cake shops, restaurants, boutique clothing)
Gentrification = bottom-up process
Not led by government agencies / large businesses = individual
Burgess model
- Even circles, starting from the centre (CBD) to the outer circle (high income housing) - typical in british + american cities - further out = better class | - Assumes wealthier people are able to afford to buy houses on the edge of cities - Assume houses are built outside of CBD | - Developed a long time ago (before mass car ownership) - New working and housing trends → i.e. living and working near the city - people need to commute to work so its easier - LONDON is middle of city and housing is VERY EXPENSIVE - Only applicable to some American cities - simple |
Hoyt Model
- beyond burgess - Lower class residential is next to factory area - high class is in zone coming out of CBD - birmingham - geared towards world where they did have means to travel - get in and out of city | - Assume people are using cars - Assume cities are growing along transport routes | - outdated - based on old fashion transportation roots - like railways, canals |
Harris and Ullman multiple nuclei model
- business centre outside of CBD - seen in Paris - second ‘centre’ where there are a lot of businesses | - Assume cities do not grow around one CBD, but are formed by the progressive integration of separate nuclei in the urban spatial structure | - outdated - ignores physical features - roll of rivers and roads |
CBD core frame model
- only for CBD - have zones within cbd - centre/core = department stores, comparison shops, high rise office blocks, banks, largest number of pedestrians - outer core/yellow = smaller shops, cinemas, (flon cinema, galeries cinema), public administration offices, offices - insurance, solicitors - outer frame = transport terminals (gare in lausanne, have to go up to get to centre), multi story car parks (riponne), schools, social services - Zone of discard = part of city centre that is run down - not nice to visit - zone of assimilation = flon before A = better residential properties B = heavy industry and poor residential | Retail park - outside of city centre Ignores physical features Set pattern No city looks like this |
Bid-rent theory
- Shows how different land uses are willing to pay different amounts for land based on distance from CBD - land values highest in CBD - which is why not houses in city centre - further away from CBD = decline in retail, increase and decrease in manufacturing and increase in residential - big american city - skyscrapers in CBD | - Assumes accessibility is increased in centrality and therefore retailing is prepared to pay a high price for land in the CBD. - Assumes as distance from CBD increases availability of land increases and it is affordable for residential and even agricultural use. | outdated |
Manns model
- representing british city - combination of sectors and burgess zone - more specific in style of housing - includes transition zone - sectors of different housing - have commuter belts - like harris and ullman - based by class of residential | - Assumes one cbd - no out of town shopping areas | - No reference to physical factors - only for british cities |
Measuring deprivation
Deprivation = lack of access to basic needs / necessities
Indices used to measure deprivation
Physical indicators - quality of housing, levels of pollution, incidence of crime, vandalism , grafiti
Social indicators - crime, levels of health + access to health care, standards of education, proportion of population on benefits, proportion of lone-parent families
Economic indices - access to employment, levels of income
Political indices - opportunities to vote, and to take part in community organisation
Slums and squatter settlements
Total number of slum dwellers in word = 32% of world's population
UN defines a Slum Household as one or a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area, lacking one or more of the following amenities:
Durable housing - permanent structure providing protection from extreme climatic conditions
Sufficient living space - no more than 3 people sharing a room
Access to improved water - sufficient, affordable and can be obtained without extreme effort
Access to improved sanitation facilities - private toilet, public shared with reasonable amount of people
Secure tenure - protection against forced eviction
Informal activity
Not working formally, not paying taxes, not employed, work for yourself
Dual economy of developing world = formal economy (complete with offices, factories and commercial business) + informal economy (servants, gardeners, mads, cleaners, taxi drivers, prostitutes,..etc)
Civil service employs large number of people - teachers, nurses, soldiers,...
Informal economy is small scale, locally owned, labour intrusive
Informal sector = divided into 2
Traditional bazaar economy + street economy
Bazaar = small trade and service establishments, craft workshops
Family enterprise employing children and elderly
Account for up to 45% of employment in a city
Street = hawkwars,, shoe-shiners, beggars, thieves and prostitutes
Account for 40% of labour force
Earring and standards of living are low
Exploitation of the informal sector
Informal economy allows even more exploitation of the poor by rich
Exploitation takes place in many waves
Eg. entrepreneurs who own equipment or capital necessary for operation of business = often wealthy in formal sector
Reduced price that those in regular employment (formal) have to pay for their goods
Megacity growth - benefits and challenges
Benefits | Challenges |
Economic opportunities
| Environmental consequences
|
Services
| Income Inequality |
Gentrification
| Informal housing/settlements - slums
|
Consumer market
| Poverty |
Urban sprawl Connected via transport routes | Demand on resources |
Rapid growth of cities creating more megacities
| Segregation of rich and poor - social problems in city |
Poverty, deprivation and informal activity in Sparkbook, Birmingham, UK
  Sparkbrook = most socially deprived districts in Birmingham Social deprivation definition = Communities that have high levels of social deprivation see:
Economic aspects of poverty
Environmental Aspects of Poverty
|
Poverty, deprivation and informal activity in Nairobi, Kenya
 Housing Poverty
Health Poverty
Water Poverty
Causes of Poverty
|
Urbanisation
Process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas, enabling cities and towns to grow
Also refers to increase in number of people living in urban areas in comparison to rural
Measured at global, regional and national scales
Global scale - urbanisation
Urbanisation follows district patterns
HIC = almost fully urbanised - E.g. Australia
Majority of people living in towns and cities
LIC = fast rates of urbanisation - E.g. Afghanistan
Africa = least urbanised
But, urbanising at rapid pace
1.7 billion people live in towns and cities, roughly 40% of the world's population. By 2050 this is expected to reach 6.4 billion, roughly 66%.
Centripetal population movement
the movement of people towards the city from the countryside
Natural increase
Population growth resulting from birth rates exceeding death rates
Push and pull factors
Pull factors - positive conditions of a place that lead to in-migration
Push factors - negative conditions of a place that lead to out-migration
Counter urbanisation/suburbanisation centrifugal
the movement of people away from city centres due to large-scale decentralisation and growth of the periphery
Might be still very close to transport - which means better same aspects but cheaper and better quality of life - bigger space
Differences between urbanisation in industrialised and developing countries (MICs and LICs) AND urbanisation in HICs - Mapping slums in Kibera
Why are slums often not on the map
Official map of nairobi is zoned to be forests - actually many people living with not many trees
Not mapped because the government in denial (it's rough, informal and we dont wanna map that, accepting that it is official, yes that is the neighbourhood in our town) - don't want to legitimise it.
What does the new kibera map show
28 schools map
19 toilet
Movie theatre
Vegetable farm - sack gardens
Many things came up that people had no idea
How does mapping helping authenticate unplanned places
Help build relationships with local authorities - to help support activities occurring in slums
Mapping informal schools
50,000 students education within slum outside of public education system
How does mapping reinforce the community of unplanned places
To make the map they used crowdsourcing
People that live there log the information - they know it better than outsider people
Trained people to create map - using handheld GPS devices
Process = difficult since they had never touched computer before
Draw community together
Everyone can benefit from them
How is mapping of kibera helping to improve quality of live
Painting map on walls in slum - showing dangerous areas
Printing maps for police
Imagination sparked to tell story of kibera - making youtube channel - daily life
Voice of kibera - website
blogs , youtube, twitter, facebook - way of self representation
Open street map - anyone can contribute data
Many applications - like hazard zoning + mapping
New map shows how dense it is and everything that is actually there - thriving and compley city within city
urban population movement
Phase 1: City core = dominant in providing jobs + getting people from rural areas
Phase where most LIC cities are in + HIC have gone through
Phase 2: Increased affluence (the state of having a great deal of money; wealth) + better transport - more people can move to suburbs leaving central area
Phase 3: Suburbanization + counterurbanization = prominent
Case in France + USA
Consequences of urbanisation
Economic growth
Urban economies are almost always more productive than rural ones
Industrial productivity = higher in cities
Cities = responsible for greater percentage of total GDP
Gentrification
Modernisation of homes + entreprises
Reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas
Type of filtering = may lead to social displacement of poor people
When place gets gentrified, housing prices increase
Poor = can't afford it - often minorities
Re-urbanization: urban renewal - development of activities to increase residential population densities within existing built up area of a city
Brownfield sites: abandoned/underused industrial buildings/land
May be contaminated BUT potential for redevelopment
Some people may move back to urban areas after moving to rural areas why?
Who?
Young couples + independent w no children
Older
Divorced
Separated
Prefer availability of services in urban areas
Why?
Urban areas = more convenient - range of services
Nearer shops
Shorter commuting distance - for those who work in city (reduce stress, exhaustion, travel time)
Entertainment - clubs, cinemas
Housing location + type
People that move back move to
Apartments- w/ security systems
3 story townhouses
Urban sprawl
Unplanned + uncontrolled expansion of an urban area (physical) into surrounding countryside
Closely linked with process of suburbanization
Eg. shanghai slides
Especially pudong - tallest building in asia
Grown in all directions
counter-urbanisation
Process involving movement of pop. away from inner urban areas to:
New town
New estate
Commuter town
Village on the edge / just beyond city limits or rural-urban fringe
Response to increasing stress of overcrowding, congestion, pollution and crime
Reasons for counter urbanisation
Increased car ownership - especially in low income countries - china = went from mainly bikes, to moped to cars
Increased wealth
Deindustrialization - factories, retail, industry, are no longer in city centre - NESTLE FACTORY
Relocation of industry/employment to rural urban fringe
Desire for safe, pleasant environment, rural ideal
Perception of urban areas as dangerous
High levels of crime, racial/ethnic problems
Change in tenure from public/renting to private ownership
Sell property + move out
What is centrifugal movement + its consequences
Shift of population + economic activity from centre of urban area → periphery + beyond = detrimental to centre
Construction of roads and buildings = destruction of open space + increases air pollution
Family life cycle
Person = likely to move around different zones of city depending on their age + need for house of a certain size
Urban system growth including infrastructure improvements over time, such as transport, sanitation, water, waste disposal and telecommunications
Transport: in lausanne = metro = infrastructure improvement ‘2008’, LEB Line
Newest transportation = tram line - 2026 will connect all of lausanne - get places quickly
Sanitation: Waste-water (flush toilets, where does it go?) - when city grows rapidly, can't keep up with needs of sanitation
In switzerland = not an issue
Other lower income places
Water: access to safe clean water
Switzerland = such clean water - even flush toilet with this clean water
Other places might
Telecommunications: change in telephones
Land lines to internet, mobile phones
How do cities change with growth?
Environmental issues - pollution
Increased population
urban deindustrialisation
generally refers to the process of industry closure found in inner city districts in HIC cities.
loss/reduction in secondary industry in towns/cities
Drop in the total number of people employed in manufacturing in an urban area
Factories closing
deindustrialization doesn't always mean decline in population
Ways to measure urban deindustrialisation
Decline in percentage of manufacturing employment compared to percentage in other economic sectors
Reduction in outcome earned from manufacturing
Reduction in percentage of the local economy produced by manufacturing
Cycle of decline - deindustrialisation
Economic Shock: Industries decline; jobs are lost.
Out-Migration: Skilled people leave, population shrinks.
Physical Decline: Buildings and infrastructure deteriorate.
Social Decline: Poverty, crime, and social issues increase.
Environmental Decline: Neglected spaces and pollution worsen.
Reinforcement: Decline becomes a self-perpetuating cycle.
Consequences of deindustrialisation
Deindustrialization has a domino effect - where when it happens it results in a number of consequences
Starting primarily with Economic, then spreading into social - which is the most
Environmental impacts being the last impact from deindustrialization before it reaches back to economic
Often resulting in an effect on future generations
Social |
| Both social and economic: - People have less to spend renovating/updating properties - Local shops = less income/customers |
Economic | After deindustrialization:
| |
Environmental |
| |
Urban deindustrialisation in Detroit, Michigan
Detroit's infrastructure is crumbling
It is now crime capital of america - 7 out of 10 crimes unsolved
only 18% of detroit adults have a college degree VS national average of 27%
city is struggling to control the brain drain
Ford motor company no longer has a factory in detroit, but general motors still does and the city remains dependent on them
only one public transport called ‘people mover’ which only encircles 2.9 miles of the downtown area- it has a single track and only runs in one direction. Although designed to move up to 15 million riders a year it only serves 2 mill
Unlike chicago and toronto, detroit never developed a subway and trolley or intricate bus system
Between 1978 and 1984, detroit lost 180,009 manufacturing jobs
Causes of urban deindustrialisation in Detroit
Bankruptcy of large car companies:
General Motors
Ford
Chevrolet
Foreign car companies: Japanese car companies made cars for cheaper, drove larger companies out of business
Car companies outsource labour to mexico, since it is cheaper and workers in detroit are laid off
Automation: machinery becomes cheaper more complex and more reliable - it does the work that used to be done by humans
Consequences of deindustrialization in Detroit
No or little pensions
60-70,000 people were laid off in one go
High unemployment and increase in out migration
High crime rates, vandalism
Zero traffic, quiet, dissolution
Social consequences: lack of motivation from population, community spirit, engagement in social activities in detroit
Brain drain: educated workers choose to move out, and students looking to study prefer to study out of state
Decaying, deteriorating infrastructure
Population shrunk from 2 mill to 800,000
Abandoned skyscrapers
People can’t afford to buy a house bc people don’t have good credit (for bank loans) or savings
President trump on Detroit deindustrialisation
Trump’s message ‘make america great again’ made citizens in detroit vote for Trump
Look to president for change - Faith
‘This city will once again shine with industrial might’
Trump came to Willow Run - planning major new test facility for automated vehicles for future
Promise to bring car jobs back
MCITY
Effort to revive economy and protect jobs
Urban microclimate
Climate of any small area that is different to its surrounding area
Urban heat island is one type of microclimate
Dark coloured buildings, industry, pavements, removal of green space, add to increasing temperature - bubble of heat - area where temperature is hotter
Releases heat slowly
Thunderstorm - cloud can hit bubble - 2x the amount of precipitation
Natural microclimate
Snow capped mountains
Forest
Bodies of water - make summers cooler and warmer in winter due to water heating up and cooling slowly
Vegetation
Agricultural
Albedo
fraction of sunlight or other radiation that is reflected by a surface or object rather than being absorbed. It is measure on a scale from 0 to 1 where 0 represents a perfectly absorbing surface (black body) and 1 represents a perfectly reflecting surface
Low albedo:
Mumbai, India: Dense construction and dark rooftops.
Dubai, UAE: Urban sprawl with dark roadways and structures.
Beijing, China: Massive construction with concrete and industrial facilities.
High albedo:
Los Angeles, California, USA: Implemented "cool pavement" and light-colored roofs.
Athens, Greece: Use of white-painted buildings common in Mediterranean architecture.
Reykjavik, Iceland: Snow-covered landscapes and high use of geothermal heating keep urban surfaces more reflective.
Air pollution and its types
Air pollution = particles in the atmosphere which are either harmful, or are not caused naturally.
Urban areas = worse air pollution
Emissions that cause air pollution = vehicles, energy production, factory emissions,...etc
Other types of atmospheric pollution
How to measure air pollution
Several metrics can be used to measure
Amount of specific gases in atmosphere - most commonly sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide
PM2.5 and PM10 particulates being used
World air quality project’s maps - show the real-time air pollution
Map shows air pollution globally at 10pm on New years eve, 2019 - clear to see where clock has already struck 12 - fireworks
patterns of air pollution in Oslo and Ulaanbaatar
Oslo:
Linked to transport networks
Vehicles are biggest source of pollutants
Map = Oslo, 2011
Oslo = calm period at centre
CBD is often a part of the city where pedestrian access = is more efficient than vehicles = less vehicle emissions
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia:
Heat homes + workplaces using wood and fossil fuel-burning stoves
Concentration of PM2.5 particles in Ulaanbaatar with the peaks occurring when people are more likely home
How to manage air pollution
Air pollution is mainly managed through five broad approaches
Tree planting
Transport
Point - limiting very specific sources of air pollution
Nonpoint - limiting general sources of air pollution that are widely distributed - construction sites + individual households
Specific gas reduction - NO2 + SO2
Cities can specifically:
Make a green zone - polluting vehicles are not allowed to enter city centres - eg. London
Limits on cars allowed to drive - permission based on number of letters or registration plate
No car days
Plant trees
Minimum emission standards on vehicles
Develop public transport
Reduce congestion - less time idling (idling = spend time doing nothing.
Causes of urban microclimates
Low Albedo: 0 represents a perfectly absorbing surface (black body)
Building materials /colour decreasing albedo
Asphalt = decrease albedo a lot -
Building density and height → diverting wind paths
Air conditioning increasing exterior temperatures
Anthropogenic heat - from humans/human activities
Features of urban microclimates
Urban winds
Wind speed overall is slower as its deflected from tall buildings
Precipitation
“Rainfall is generally more frequent in urban areas due to raised levels of condensation nuclei in and downwind of the urban area.” - Condensation nuclei = small particles on which water vapour condenses
More rainfall, heavier + frequent convective rain + thunderstorms
Less common snow + frost due to higher temperature
Eg. High precipitation in London compared to areas around
Urban heat islands
Higher temperatures due to
Industries, homes and vehicles burn fuel which releases heat.
Building materials; concrete, glass, bricks + tarmac absorb heat + release slowly by night.
Traffic congestion patterns, trends and impacts - Air pollution in paris france
Physical landscape causes air pollution + heat Trapped above city
Cars = big part of paris - city of motorists
Paris is one of most congested cities in europe
40,000 people a year are killed by air pollution in France
Anne Hidalgo - Mayor of Paris - wants to recover public space + wants to halve number of private polluting vehicles
1973 ring road - boulevard périphérique
Goes around outside of centre
Thought was they reduce traffic in centre - but actually increased it
2016 - Mayor Anne Hidalgo
Restricted traffic in center - needed sticker
Most polluting cant drive in city between 8am and 8pm during week
All cars must carry critical air sticker - level of pollution
If you don’t carry sticker - fine 68 euros
Anne Hidalgo - wants to set up electric tram bus - east to west 2018
Some neighborhoods = pedestrian only zones
Saying it will reduce pollution
Need to drive slower
October 1st 2017 = first express bike lane
Less cars = more pleasant to ride bikes - less car space = more bikes
Odd vs Even license plates - happened 4 times since 2014
Only drivers with odd-numbered license plates allowed to drive - Dec 7
Even-numbered = Dec 6
License plate-based restrictions take off half of cars when pollution = at peak
Human causes of air pollution in france
Human causes of air pollution in Paris |
|
physical causes of air pollution in paris
Physical causes of air pollution in Paris |
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car free day scheme in Paris and the low emission zones (traffic) - PROS + CONS
Paris, like many large cities, has hosted Car-Free Days to combat pollution and raise awareness of environmental issues.
Ensures people will actually do it - Violators face a fine of €135
Pros:
Environmental Benefits: Reduces air pollution and carbon emissions.
Health Benefits: Promotes physical activity through walking and cycling.
Reduced Traffic: Alleviates congestion and makes travel smoother.
Awareness: Raises awareness about sustainability and alternative transport.Citizens enjoy road with comfort - not as many traffic
Mayor says could inspire Parisians to think about alternatives to cars - no matter the age
Cons:
Inconvenience: Disrupts daily routines for those relying on cars for commuting or errands.
Overcrowded Transport: Public transport systems may become congested with added passengers.
Limited Long-Term Impact: Does not significantly change driving habits or reduce car dependency.
Disadvantages for Vulnerable Groups: People with mobility issues or in poorly connected areas may struggle.
scheme to make public transport free in Paris - PROS AND CONS
To improve air quality, public transport needs to be more comfortable, regular, extensive, reliable, + reconsider fares
Pros:
Increased Accessibility: Makes transportation affordable for all, especially low-income individuals.
Reduced Traffic and Pollution: Encourages use of public transport, lowering car usage and emissions.
Enhanced Public Health: Promotes walking and cycling, contributing to overall well-being.
Simplifies Transport System: No need for ticketing, making it more convenient for riders.
Can do work when on public transport = double the benefit
Cons:
‘Need the money’ + ‘Unfair to make transport free for Parisians but not for people living in the suburbs’ - Valérie Pecresse
2015 study, EU’s statistics agency = Paris is already one of highest levels of transport use in Europe
Loss of Revenue: Public transport systems may lose essential funding from ticket sales.
Overcrowding: Increased ridership could strain the existing transport infrastructure.
Quality of Service: More passengers may result in poorer service or delays.
Inequality of Impact: Wealthier individuals might not be incentivized to switch from private cars.
Land use change
change between one type of land use turning into another
Commercial area gradually turning into a residential area
Contested land use
disagreement about converting land from one use to another
power in contested land use
Different people = different views about the change
Often between people who live in the area compared to developers who want to change the land use
Outcome = depend on who has most powers
Sources of power
Economic - who = most money
Political - who = most control over decision making
Social - who = most people on their side
Civil Society’ - create a block of people that can be powerful enough to change decisions over land use
Common examples = Greenpeace
Informal settlements
Informal settlements = residential areas - conditions that harm their health, safety, prosperity and opportunities
Often associated with Slums, Squatter settlements
Characterised by severe problems
Lack of land tenure - people who live there don't own the land = no legal rights to land
Threat of eviction
Lack of sanitation
Lack of an improved water supply - clean water
Poor services - education + health care
Little / no infrastructure
Power of these residents = little - few financial resources, politically ignored, struggle to organise together
self help schemes
Projects in informal settlements + slums where residents = given opportunity to improve area themselves
Legal right to live on a piece of land = tenure
One of most important elements of self help = ensure residents have tenure
Must take into account
Level of start-up capital required to provide the materials for the residents to use
Any existing skills in informal settlements - or lack of skills
Who provides funding - how is it paid back
is it a loan, grant, aid
slum clearance schemes
Slum household = inhabitants suffer one or more of following household deprivations
Lack of access to
improved water source
Improved sanitation facilities
Sufficient living area
Housing durability
Security of tenure
Slum dweller = person living in a household that lacks any of attributes above
Slum clearance schemes = forced eviction of residents + clearance of buildings
Clearance = often done to help residents by providing new housing on same or nearby site
Some residents = suspicious that it is to make profit
Sometimes alternative housing that's provided = too expensive for residents to afford
Lack of warning = residents still in house when demolition occurs - sometimes residents refuse to leave (nowhere else to go)
slum clearance CASE STUDY - brazil
Slum clearances - Rio de Janeiro - 2016 for the Olympics
Olympic games causes property boom in some central favelas (favela a Brazilian shack or shanty town; a slum)
Eg. Vidigal Favela = dominated by drug gangs but transformed by potential of olympic games
Value of land increased x3 in 3 years
Police made area safe
Average house price increased by 165% - 2012-2016
Value increased faster in favelas where drug gangs gotten rid of
Activists say - developers displaced >170,000 people
Eg. Favela do Metro (1,000 residents) destroyed to make way for parking facilities
Citizens not satisfied with prospects of being relocated
Brazil government thinks that Rio hosting olympics + other 12 brazilian cities hosting 2014 world cup = benefit from global attention, tourism, infrastructure and economy
Rio 2016 organising committee promise that hosting olympics = provide city with employment opportunities
4,000 temporary + permanent employees for committee
48,000 people receive professional training in areas to do with olympics
60,000 people = opportunity to volunteer
Rio 2016 slogan = ‘a new world’
Infrastructure build for Rio olympics (3 new bus-rapid transit lines - BRTs) = high price for poorer residents
Contested land use CASE STUDY - Dharavi
Experts suggest informal economy accounts for 90% of employment + majority of india's economic growth Dharavi is one of Asia's largest slums
Proximity to CBD makes land valuable and in demand
Population = 1 million people
Area where it is a prime site for development but development would affect lives of thousands/millions
Dharavi = connected by all 3 city railways
Indian property developer - Mukesh Mehta - wants to develop Dharavi into international business destination
Dharavi = home to thousands of micro industries - account for 650 million dollars annually
Dharavi = informal city - attracts labour - people can work and sleep in their workshops
Range of businesses that operate here - small manufacturing
Pottery
Masses of rubbish = separate for Recyclers
Leather
Textiles
5,000 business operate
15,000 one room workshops
Space = contested - developers like Mukesh could make fortune from developing to financial/service district
This would displace up to 1 mill people to edge of city like Mankhurd - offer few economic prospects
Good business reasons for development of 4 seasons hotel
Shortage of hotel rooms in India
Hotel cost = 100 million to build
Rooms start at 500 per night
redevelopment schemes
Include slum clearance + self help
Informal settlement is improved - residents remain + don't do work themselves
Opposite of gentrification
Top down
Governments + large businesses make policy decisions to alter land use
Local residents may have opportunity to contribute to plans - not ones in charge
Most common reason for redevelopment
Loss of industry from cities in HIC result in derelict land in inner city around CBD
Derelict (run down) land and buildings is land which has been so damaged by development, that it is incapable of development for beneficial use without rehabilitation
Involve development of business parks - large warehouse stores that cannot fit into city centre
May also include entertainment districts
Urban redevelopment example - Flon
The negatives and positives of the redevelopment of Flon
POSITIVE | NEGATIVE | |
SOCIAL | Less crime Pedestrianized more above ground - car parks under More open space | Noise pollution |
ECONOMIC | Business opportunities - restaurants, bars,.. Bars on rooftops - maximising space | X |
ENVIRONMENTAL | Beautiful landscaping Added greenery on top of metro building | Air pollution Less wildlife Less green space |
POLITICAL | more protests - could be negative or positive? |
Depletion of green space
Reasons:
Economic development demands that land is used for something economically productive - parks turned into car parks E.g
Green space is open land for immigrants - to build squatter settlements - so they get fenced off and turned to something else
Wealthier areas - green spaces require maintenance so are urbanised to save money
Green city index - project aiming to quantify how ‘green’ a city is
Depletion of green space example - Crissier
POSITIVE | NEGATIVE | |
SOCIAL | More services | |
ECONOMIC | More employment opportunities | |
ENVIRONMENTAL | Less green space Less Wildlife Air pollution - transpiration | |
POLITICAL | Increased government - local representation - commune |
Where in urban areas is the most crime? What type of crime?
It depends on the crime
Vandalism, burglary, vehicle theft = in densely populated areas
more vehicles to steal, low class residential
Low income country = depends, central area in Rio
Fraud, sexual offences = open spaces - tends to be when walking through park
People on electric scooters + motorbikes - swipe phone out of hand - increased in London
Characteristics of criminals
Demographic
Young
Men
Single
Minority Group
Broken home
Socio-economic
Large family size
Low income
Unskilled occupation
Unemployed
Living conditions
Standard
Overcrowded - eg. living with a bunch of siblings
Rented tenure
Low permanence
what factors influence the amount of crime
Presence of crime targets for an offence to happen
Site features - eg. access + lack of security
Just across swiss border is seen as less safe than switzerland
Presence of higher number of offenders and sufficient incentive and ability to commit crime
High residential land use
Lack of health centres, school, recreational areas
Lack of police + police stations
Nothing else to do - children have nothing to do so they turn to crime
how to manage urban crime
Police patrol
CCTV - China has them everywhere
Street lighting
Building design - to make safer - know area with crime = put more lighting, cameras, no dark spots, fence off areas
Taxi services - get all drunk people from bars out quickly - if no taxis they stand around drunk fights and more inclined to do crime
Women only taxis - women drivers, or certified safe taxi drivers
Zero-tolerance to any crime - even minor infractions are dealt with heavily
Managing urban crime - in urban social deprived areas - Project green light in DETROIT
Number of crimes in Detroit
Violent = 12,774
Property = 28,227
Total = 41,001
Project greenlight = Partnership between police, locals, businesses
Started off just for petrol stations because a lot of crime there - 8 different places
Using cctv cameras - especially around businesses in partnership
Signs saying ‘this area is monitored by cctv’ - criminals think twice and think of consequences
Businesses pay to install cameras
Connect to system - monitored by police
Goals = improve police response time - once crime is committed police can come faster + deterring crime from happening at all
More regular police patrol in areas - part of partnership
Mapping technology - map aras where it is happening more - focus on that area
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Resilient Design
Resilient design refers to creating cities that can adapt to and recover from adverse events like climate change, natural disasters, or economic disruptions
Resilience : ability to recover from shocks and stresses, allowing core functions to continue
Slow onset problems: gradual issues like climate change, population growth or resource depletion
Urban resilience: the ability of people groups or organisations in a city to ensure shocks and strains and bounce back
Multi stakeholder processes: incorporating various viewpoints to strengthen resilience
Flexibility: capacity to adjust and steer in response to changing circumstances
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - resilient design NEW YORK
New York City is not just a hub of economic power but also a model of geopolitical resilience, adapting to global challenges such as security threats, migration, and economic shifts.
Diverse Economic Base: NYC is home to Wall Street, the United Nations headquarters, and major industries like finance, media, and tech, making it less vulnerable to single-sector downturns.
Global Diplomatic Hub: Hosting the UN and numerous consulates, NYC plays a central role in international diplomacy and crisis response.
Security & Counterterrorism: After 9/11, NYC developed world-leading counterterrorism measures, including the NYPD Intelligence Bureau and extensive surveillance infrastructure.
Migration & Multicultural Integration: As a top destination for immigrants, NYC has policies that support social cohesion and economic inclusion, making it more resilient to demographic and geopolitical shifts.
Infrastructure & Cybersecurity: NYC invests in critical infrastructure, digital security, and financial market resilience to withstand cyber threats and geopolitical instability.
Why It Stands Out: NYC’s adaptability in the face of geopolitical risks—ranging from terrorism to financial crises—makes it a model for other global cities navigating an increasingly unstable world.
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - resilient design ROTTERDAM
Rotterdam is a leading example of a resilient city design, showcasing innovative strategies to adapt to and mitigate challenges like climate change, rising sea levels, and urban flooding.
Water Squares: Multipurpose areas that store rainwater during floods and serve as community spaces in dry weather.
Floating Infrastructure: Floating buildings and farms adapt to rising sea levels.
Green Roofs: Reduce urban heat, manage stormwater, and improve air quality.
Climate-Proof Planning: Dikes, barriers, and adaptive infrastructure double as public spaces (e.g., Maeslantkering).
Sustainable Transport: Bike-friendly infrastructure, robust public transit, and electric vehicles - reduces dependency on fossil fuels and builds a more sustainable urban future.
Why It Stands Out: Combines engineering, ecology, and community collaboration to adapt to climate challenges, serving as a model for other cities. Scalability: Many solutions serve as models for other cities facing similar challenges, such as New York City’s East Side Coastal Resiliency project.
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Smart city design
Uses technology to increase efficiency of urban systems. Aim to improve living conditions and environmental sustainability
Aspects of smart cities
Smart mobility
Smart education
Smart environment
Energy
Smart government
Smart transportation
Services that benefit from smart cities:
Waste management - Smart bins - automatically empty when full
Traffic management - Traffic lights that adapt in response to congestion of traffic to lessen it
Public safety - ‘Compstat’ - computer program that logs crime and predicts where/when a crime is likely to occur
Energy management - Retrofitting government buildings with LED lights to improve energy efficiency
Downsides of smart cities
Energy use
Substantial internet infrastructure - increasing energy consumption
Internet currently uses 7% of global energy - uses fossil fuels to power
Inequality
India - people report if street cleaners not doing well
Targeted at middle class people
High cost
Cost over 41 million over 20 years
Individual projects can cost over 70 million
Unaffordable for low and middle income —> inequality
Funding challenges
Governments can't fund fully smart city projects
Reliance on private funding
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Smart city design EXAMPLES
Songdo south korea - 40 billion smart city
Sensors in every street to track traffic flow, lamp posts, surveillance cameras - collects real time data
Residents can monitor their energy and utility consumption on touch screens
Garbage automatically sucked away - underground pipes
Arizona - belmont usa
25,000 acres of smart city plans - 80 million dollars
Plans for 80,000 homes with potential population of 182,000
Designed to utilise solar power since they are in sunny desert environment
Construction has not yet begun with concerns about water availability
High-speed digital communication networks are a cornerstone of the design.
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Eco city design
Eco-city design:
City aiming to reduce ecological footprint
urban center engineered to improve its environmental impact through urban planning and management
How is Eco-city design sustainable?
Less use of energy (fossil fuels) + protects finite resources
Lowering/limiting personal and local ecological footprint
Avoids making products or systems that are single use, producing less waste in the end - (similar to circular economy)
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Eco city design HAMMARBY SJöSTAD
Hammarby Sjöstad
Run-down industrial area in 1990s
The development was primarily to improve the city for the 2004 Olympics - since Stockholm was one of cities to potentially host 2004 Olympics
2004 olympics did not end up being in Stockholm but they continued development anyways
Since then they successfully managed to:
Reduce impact from emissions up to 50%
Created sanitary redevelopment systems
Build energy efficient buildings
Reduced heat waste and much more
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Eco city design STOCKHOLM initiatives
Goal: Fossil-free, climate-positive city by 2040.
Stockholm Royal Seaport:
Transformed from industrial site into eco-district with 12,000 homes, 35,000 workplaces, and social facilities.
Key features: pedestrian/bike lanes, smart recycling systems, and energy management apps that promote awareness.
Electrification Pact:
Aims to expand EV charging infrastructure and electrify transport.
100% of public transport electricity is renewable.
Transportation Focus:
Transportation represents 50% of greenhouse gas emissions; half comes from passenger cars.
Encourages walking, biking, and metro use as “climate-smart” options.
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Eco city design SWEDEN Sustainability challenges and innovations
Challenges:
Sweden’s consumption footprint requires 4.2 Earths to sustain its lifestyles.
Breakdown: 32% food, 29% travel, 18% goods, 12% housing, 9% services.
Retuna Recycling Mall (Eskilstuna, Sweden):
Embedded in a recycling center; only sells upcycled or second-hand goods.
Impact: Over $3.5 million in sales since 2015, teaching sustainable consumption and upcycling skills.
Government Action:
12.9 billion kronor earmarked for climate initiatives over four years.
Adopted all 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (2030 Agenda).
Global Impact:
Stockholm serves as a testbed for sustainable technologies, enabling businesses to scale up low-carbon solutions and inspiring cities worldwide.
Building sustainable urban systems for the future - Eco city MASDAR overview and design features
Location: Abu Dhabi desert, UAE – chosen for solar energy potential and to address the UAE’s high ecological footprint caused by beef imports, car usage, waste, and reliance on non-renewable energy.
Population: 130 residents (2024) with a planned 5,000 population.
Construction Materials: Low-carbon cement, recycled aluminum, sustainable materials; hosts one of the largest clusters of LEED Platinum-certified buildings.
Power Sources:
Solely renewable energy with a 54-acre, 88,000-panel solar farm.
Designed to capture and redirect cooler desert winds; uses wind towers and building orientation for natural cooling (15°C cooler).
Sustainable Transportation:
No cars or traditional streets; uses underground driverless electric vehicles and railway systems.
Energy Efficiency: Movement sensors replace light switches and taps to conserve resources.
Feminist urban planning
Feminist Urban Planning: ‘A feminist approach to urbanism places women’s experiences at the heart of urban planning and design, with an emphasis on women’s direct participation, and takes into account the multiplicity of differences within them, based on age, class, caste, ethnicity, religion, disability, gender, sexuality, and marital status, among others’ Sneha V, 2023
Decarbonization
Decarbonization: ‘term used for removal or reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) output into the atmosphere. Decarbonisation is achieved by switching to usage of low carbon energy sources.’ Eric V, 2024
Brownfield site
Brownfield site: ‘Abandoned, derelict or under‑used industrial buildings and land that may be contaminated but have potential for redevelopment’ IB Geography Revision, 2018