EXP3604 Exam 2

UF's Dr. Brian Cahill, EXP3604 (Cognitive Psychology) Exam #2 covering chapters 4-5 of Thomas A. Farmer's "Cognition" in Fall 2025

Chunk

Mentally grouping individual pieces of information into more meaningful units in such a way that improves short-term memory capacity by aiding in recall/learning

Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique

An experimental procedure to study short-term memory and the process of forgetting it by preventing rehearsal. You are presented with a series of items, then a distractor task, then attempt to recall the original items after the delay. Memory performance decreases with longer delays, showing how information is lost from short-term memory without rehearsal. Could be due to the proactive or retroactive interference effects.

Rehearsal

Repeating or practicing information to help retain it in memory. Maintains items in short-term memory, then transfers them to long-term memory. Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition for short-term retention whereas elaborative rehearsal is linking new information with existing knowledge to create meaningful connections and enhance the long-term memory of something.

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember items at the end of a list.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list.

Semantics

The study of meaning, which involves how we understand, process, and store information about words, concepts, and the world around us.

Proactive Interference

Previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn or recall more recent information, since the older memories disrupt the encoding and retrieval of newer, similar memories.

Release from Proactive Interference

When memory recall improves after a change in the category or type of information that is being remembered. This explains how previously learned material no longer blocks the retrieval of new information.

Control Processes

AKA cognitive control or executive functions. These are conscious, effortful mental processes that manage behaviour to meet certain goals. Examples are decision-making, attention allocation, and logical planning.

Working-memory Approach

The system of temporary storage/manipulation that information goes through. It involves complex tasks like comprehension and reasoning. Goes beyond the simplicity of short-term memory by including active processing.

Phonological loop

A part of Baddeley’s model of working memory that temporarily stores verbal and auditory information. The phonological store holds speech-based information for a few seconds before sending it to the articulatory rehearsal process where mental repetition allows for keeping the information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A workspace in the working memory model that keeps visual and spatial information. Separate from the phonological loop. Involved in visualization, navigation, and spatial relations.

Subvocalization

Internal, silent expression of words while reading or thinking. Usually involves subtle movements from muscles that control speech. The “inner voice” that hears in your mind. Aids in memory encoding and cognitive processing. Limits reading speed to a person’s speaking speed.

Acoustic confusions

The psychological phenomenon where misremembered information is the result of errors of sound-based memory, which can cause you to substitute it with similar-sounding words.

Self-instruction

Self-directed verbal prompts that can be either spoken aloud or kept in internal thought. Helps with behaviour, thinking, and problem-solving.

Central Executive

The supervisory components of Baddeley’s working memory model that controls attention. It coordinates the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, plus integrates information from long-term memory.

Episodic Buffer

Part of the working memory model. Integrates information from various sources until it is a coherent, multi-dimensional episode. Controlled by the central executive. Acts as a temporary storage system. Creates unified representations of information that can be consciously accessed, manipulated, and used.

Episodic Memory

Being able to recall personal, autobiographical events. AKA autobiographical memory. It is personal and specific that provides contextual details. Sometimes described as “mental time travel” and is a type of declarative memory.

Semantic Memory

A type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge about the world (facts, language, concepts, etc.) that is organized into semantic networks where concepts are interconnected.

Procedural Memory

The sort of unconscious, long-term memory allowing one to perform skills and habits automatically without delving into conscious thought.

Encoding

First memory process that transforms sensory memory into a format that the brain can process, store, and retrieve. Happens via multiple sensory inputs. Crucial for memory retention and recall.

Retrieval

Accessing/bringing stored information from LTM to conscious awareness. Might utilized multiple methods like recall, recognition, retrieval cues, state-dependent memory, or testing effect.

Levels-of-processing/Depth-of-processing approach

Developed by Craik and Lockhart. Memory retention depends on the depth of cognitive processing applied to information during encoding. Deeper, more meaningful processing will result in stronger, more durable memory. On the contrary, not putting more effort into memory (only processing it at the surface-level) will not be as durable.

Distinctiveness

Unique qualities of a stimulus that makes it stand out from its context. Helps enhance attention, memory, and attributing meaning. Akin to naming a GoogleDoc something more specific so that it is easier to find. 

Elaboration

The cognitive process of connecting new information with things you already know to create deeper understandings and improve memory retention. You do this by adding meaningful details, creating analogies, summarizing, using mental imagery, or making associations.

Self-reference Effect

Having better memory if something is related to yourself rather than information that isn’t connected to you.

Meta-Analysis

An objective study of previously published data in the same research topic during the literature review/search stage. Uses various statistical methods to show patterns in studies. High degrees of reliability.

Encoding-specificity principle

When the retrieval context matches the encoding context, memory seems to be improved. Recall is more effective when the cues at the time of retrieval are similar to the cues during learning the information.

Recall Task

A way to test memory by asking the test subject to retrieve previously studied information without external cues. Could be free recall (items can be recalled in any order) or serial recall (exact order as taught).

Recognition Task

Identify previously encountered information from a set of options. Relies on familiarity as opposed to detailed recall. For example, MCQs on a test.

Incidental Learning

Unintentionally learning something while doing another activity. Unplanned in nature, but integral to everyday life.

Intentional Learning

Active, self-directed process where you deliberately focus on acquiring new information for a defined purpose.

Orienting Tasks

Directs someone’s attention to specific features of a stimulus. Helps make processing and learning more effective.

Explicit Memory Task

Conscious, intentional retrieval of information that relies on episodic and semantic memory. During research, you know your memory is being tested.

Implicit Memory Task

Assesses memory that influences behaviour without a conscious effort to do so. Examples are priming (exposure speeds up/improves processing related stimuli) or word stem completion (participants complete fragmented words, usually with previously presented words).

Repetition Priming Task

Measures implicit memory. Exposure to a stimulus leads to faster and/or more accurate subsequent processing of that exact or similar stimulus.

Dissociation

Occurs when a variable has large effects on Test A, but little or no effects on Test B OR alternatively when a variable has one kind of effect if measured by Test A, and the opposite effect if measured by Test B

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall memories and information acquired before the onset of amnesia, usually as a result from brain damage, stroke, illness, or other.

Anterograde Amnesia

Not being able to form new memories after a brain-damaging event, even though you can recall memories from the past.

Hippocampus

The part of the brain that is essential to form new LTM and for spatial navigation since you use it to make cognitive maps of an environment.

Expertise

Consistent, exceptional performance in an area.

Emotion

A brief reaction to a stimulus. Involves physiological responses, feelings, thoughts, and cognitive appraisal/interpretation of the labeling.

Mood

A more long-term and less intense/specific state. Influences perceptions, thoughts, behaviours, etc. even if not tied to a particular event or stimulus. Can last hours to weeks.

Pollyanna Principle

Inherent human tendency to focus on, remember, and prefer positive information instead of negative information.

Positivity Effect

Age-related trend such that older adults preferentially remember positive information instead of negative information. Also viewing old memories as more positive than they might have been.

State Dependent Memory

Information is better recalled when a person is in the same physiological or psychological state during retrieval as encoding.

Mood Dependent Memory

A phenomenon where memories encoded in a specific mood are more easily retrieved when in the same mood state, rather than a different one

Mood Congruence

Individuals recall memories/make judgements that align with their current emotional state. For example, if you’re happy, you’re more likely to remember positive experiences.

Differentiate between implicit and explicit memory. Provide examples of both

Explicit memory is consciously recalling facts and past experiences, like knowing your friend’s name. Implicit memory is more unconscious; an involuntary recall of skills and more.

Retrograde or anterograde amnesia? A woman who gets into an accident and cannot remember anything that occurred before her accident

This is an example of retrograde amnesia.

Retrograde or anterograde amnesia? A man who endures a brain injury and cannot form new memories after his injury

This is an example of anterograde amnesia.

What role does mood and emotion play in long term memory? (use key words and examples in your answer)

Mood and emotion can enhance LTM through mood-congruent memory, mood-dependent memory, and the positivity effect. Emotionally charged events tend to be more vivid and detailed since the amygdala links the emotional intensity to memory consolidation.

Give an example of the Pollyanna Principle

Using certain phrases to reframe potentially negative situations in a more positive light. Or, remembering the excitement of your first date more vividly than an awkward or negative aspect that occurred.

Differentiate between mood congruence and mood dependence

Mood congruence refers to recalling information that is more congruent with your current mood, that doesn’t matter what your mood during encoding said information was. Mood dependence is the ability to more easily retrieve memories that align with your current mood as opposed to when the memory was first formed.

Explain chunking in your own words and provide an example of how it is used. How might this help when studying for an exam or memorizing a phone number?

Helps in remembering large amounts of information by breaking it into smaller bits. You can chunk a phone number into multiple groups of 3-4 numbers. For an exam, you can chunk similar concepts together.

Why might sensory memory be hard to prove?

It is very, very short. Disappears almost as soon as new information arrives. Pre-conscious process. Not easily directly observed.

How did Sperling’s experiment demonstrate sensory memory? Use Whole vs. Partial report in your response

Large amount of visual information that is initially held in a temporary sensory buffer like iconic memory, but quickly decays. The whole-report task was how after the display disappeared, the participants were asked to recall as many letters as they could from the entire matrix. The partial-report task was when participants heard a tone that indicated which row to report after the display disappeared, then report on that specific row. Proved that participants initially saw a much more comprehensive representation of the entire letter array than they could report in the whole-report condition.

Differentiate between sensory memory and short-term memory

Sensory memory is able to hold a lot of highly-detailed by unprocessed information from the senses from a fraction of or a full second. Short-term memory has a smaller capacity but holds the information for a longer time so it can be actively processed and manipulated.

What is the duration of short-term memory?

Spans from about 15 to 30 seconds.

Differentiate between levels-of-processing approach and encoding specificity principle

LOP approach explains how a deeper, more meaningful mode of encoding will lead to better memory (focuses on how). ESP posits that memory retrieval is enhanced when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding (focuses on the match).

Discuss the criticism regarding the levels-of-processing approach

Lack of specificity when defining depth. Processing depth is overall pretty subjective. Limited predictive power/external validity due to reliance on artificial laboratory stimuli. Underemphasizes memory factors like attention/retrieval cues. Incomplete account of memory.

How would you use the self-reference effect in studying for an exam?

Actively relating to new information connects the material to your life, which makes for stronger neural connections so that it is easier to retrieve from memory.

Why is the self-reference effect so powerful?

Linking new information to something that already exists in terms of knowledge means that there is a more organized memory trace with more retrieval cues so that it is easier to recall later.

Why would it be more beneficial for you to practice recall instead of recognition when studying for this exam?

The effort to retrieve information strengthens memory connections in the neurons. Enables better long-term retention and deeper understanding of the material. Recall is good for finding knowledge gaps but recognition can only show that something is familiar to you, not that you truly understand it.

Differentiate between the recency effect and the primacy effect. Think about which type of memory each one measures and common errors associated with them

The recency effect is when you remember the most recent information in a list (what comes last) whereas the primacy effect is the opposite/when you remember what comes first in a list. The recency effect shows short-term memory/working memory since the last items in memory are there and haven’t been displaced by new information though there is room for error in the sensory realm like auditory confusions. The primacy effect shows more LTM and can have errors with semantics.

Scenario #1 — you are a participant in an experiment testing short-term memory and recall. The word that you are asked to recall is couch, but you say sofa instead. Which effect error does this demonstrate?

Semantic or substitution error in the encoding since you substituted it for a synonym. Can relate to the level-of-processing model if you didn’t encode it very deeply.

Scenario #2 — you are a participant in the same study as above. Instead of saying couch, you say the word slouch. Which effect error does this demonstrate?

Phonetic error in recall since you remembered a word that sounded similar instead of the true meaning.

How can manipulating a specific part of a serial-position curve prove a dissociation between working memory and long-term memory?

Only the information in working memory (represented by the recency effect) is disrupted, while the LTM (represented by the primacy effect) remains unaffected. This can be done with a distractor task after being presented with the list of items.

What does George Miller’s “Magical Number Seven” suggest?

That the average person can hold about 7 items in the short-term/working memory with a range plus/minus 2. Highlights how there are limits in human cognitive capacity and explains why information needs to be chunked into smaller, more manageable pieces for easy recall.

How can counting backwards prevent rehearsal? What effect does this have on short-term memory?

You then need to use multiple other cognitive strategies/processes to do so. It prevents auditory rehearsal, and the lack of rehearsal causes information to decay from the STM. shows how active maintenance is needed to bring STM to LTM.

How can manipulating the semantics in an experiment affect the results? Discuss release from proactive interference in your response

Manipulating semantic categories in an experiment significantly affects results by influencing proactive interference (PI), which is the disruption of new learning due to prior learning of related information. Experiments can demonstrate a "release from proactive interference" by changing the semantic category of stimuli between trials; this change reduces interference and leads to improved recall of the new, dissimilar items, while continued use of the same category leads to declining performance over trials.

Differentiate between episodic, semantic and procedural memory

Episodic memory recalls personal memories like how you and your boyfriend started dating. Semantic memory stores general knowledge, like your boyfriend’s birthday. Procedural memory recalls doing tasks, like riding your bike with your boyfriend.

Name the type of memory for each (episodic, procedural, or semantic) — Who your first boyfriend/girlfriend was, the capitol of California, what you did for your 18th birthday, the 24th president of the U.S., and how to drive a car

Episodic. Semantic. Episodic. Semantic. Procedural.

Encoding or retrieval? Going to class to listen to Dr. Cahill lecture vs taking exam 2

Encoding. Retrieval.

What caused the transition from the term “short-term” to working memory? How might a classical researcher define short-term memory compared to Baddeley?

The shift from STM to WM was to emphasize how the memory system is active, and is able to manipulate information (crucial ability when considering cognitive tasks), answering the larger question of why we have STM in the first place. A classical research would define STM as a passive, temporary information storehouse, whereas Baddeley conceptualizes working memory as an active, multi-component system that actively manipulates information while holding it for short periods.

What is the purpose of having a short-term/working memory?

It is a mental workspace in a way that temporarily holds/manipulates information. This allows us to understand, reason, and problem-solve.

How did Baddeley and Hitch’s research both expand and contradict Miller’s? What might be the external validity of Baddeley and Hitch’s research?

Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model expanded on Miller's work by proposing multiple working memory stores, rather than a single, limited capacity store, which contradicted the "magic number 7±2" concept by demonstrating that individuals could handle simultaneous tasks if they used different systems (e.g., verbal and visual). The external validity of their research is moderate to good, as the findings have real-world applications in education and for individuals with dementia, but limitations include reliance on laboratory tasks that may not fully capture real-world cognitive demands.

What factors affect working memory’s capacity?

Factors influencing working memory capacity include attention control, sleep quality, physical activity, and age. Stress, anxiety, and distractions can significantly reduce working memory performance. Additionally, cognitive factors like semantic knowledge and the effectiveness of retrieval from secondary memory play a role.

Which techniques have researchers used to measure the capacity of working memory?

Researchers measure working memory capacity using complex span tasks (like operation span and reading span), which involve both storing and processing information, and the n-back task, which requires participants to identify matches from a series of stimuli at a specified delay. They also use Brown and Baddeley techniques.

Differentiate between the Atkinson-Shiffrin model and Baddeley’s model. What is the main limitation of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

The main difference is that the Atkinson-Shiffrin model is a linear, multi-store model of memory with separate sensory, short-term, and long-term stores, while Baddeley's model views short-term memory as a more complex, modular working memory system with components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. The main limitation of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model is its oversimplified and rigid linear structure, which fails to account for the active, simultaneous, and diverse processing of information seen in real-world cognitive tasks.

Define Acoustic confusions in your own words

Acoustic confusion is a cognitive phenomenon where people mistakenly recall or mishear words or letters that sound similar to each other. This happens because, in our short-term memory, verbal information is primarily encoded based on its sound.

When you subvocalize, which component of Baddeley’s model are you using?

The phonological loop is used.

Relate phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to your daily activities

The phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad are components of working memory that help you process information in your daily life. The phonological loop handles auditory information, while the visuospatial sketchpad manages visual and spatial details.

How can adding more trials to your experiment affect proactive interference?

After asking participants to recall words for several trials of semantically similar words can lead to proactive interference. When manipulate the semantics across trials, it seems that changing the semantic category to something as different as possible leads to the highest recall and release from proactive interference.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Also called the multi-store model of memory in which sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory. Distinct stores, each with its properties (duration, capacity, etc.). During each stage, some memories can be lost.

Short-Term Memory vs Working Memory

Short-term memory is a temporary store of limited capacity for information currently in mind. Working memory is a more dynamic; not just storage but manipulation of the information.

Theme 1

Cognitive processes are active, not passive. The mind is not a video‐recorder; thinking involves selection, interpretation, transformation. (1)

Theme 2

People are amazingly good at some tasks and surprisingly bad at others. Tendency toward biases, errors, illusions, etc. (2)

Theme 3

Processing is both bottom-up and top-down. That is, perceptual information coming from environment (data‐driven) interacts with expectations, prior knowledge. (3)

Theme 4

Cognition is modular in some ways (different systems / neural substrates) but also highly integrated. Multiple cognitive systems interact. (4)

Theme 5

Cognition is influenced by culture, context, motivation, emotion, and that cognitive psychology applied to real-world problems (ecological validity, everyday cognition). (5)

Understand each step of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model. Describe the strengths/weaknesses of this model

The Atkinson-Shiffrin (Multi-Store) model describes memory as a series of three sequential stores - sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information from the environment enters sensory memory, then moves to STM if attended to, and can be transferred to LTM through rehearsal. Strengths include its clear structure and the distinction between STM and LTM, supported by research like the serial position effect. Weaknesses involve its oversimplification, limited explanation of individual differences, and neglect of other memory processes beyond rehearsal for LTM encoding.

Why was Miller’s Study so influential for its time?

At the time, psychology was mainly focused on observable behaviour. Because Miller began to focus on cognitions, it represented a shift in the practice.

What pattern of data is usually seen with the Brown/Peterson & Peterson technique?

There is a rapid decay of short-term memory performance over time, showing decreased recall accuracy as the retention interval increases. Reflects a decline in memory retention, indicating that without rehearsal, information is quickly lost in short-term memory.

In Sperling’s study, speeding up the presentation of words had what effect? How about delaying it?

Prevented people from elaboratively encoding, therefore impacting LTM and the primacy part of the curve. Delaying it impacts the recency/STM part of the curve. Order of report on afects, start at the end to use STM (it will go soon) to go back to LTM since that will stay in the mind longer. 

What does the Working Memory Model emphasize?!

Active manipulation of stimuli.

In Baddeley’s study, why did they test anywhere from 0-8 numbers?

To show that they were reaching the capacity that Miller set forth, who would argue that the participants couldn’t do both at once. This reconceptualized Miller’s theory to show that there are multiple parts to working memory, each with their own capacities.

What was Bradimonte & Coauthor’s study and what did it show?

They had people say “la la la” in their heads while looking at complex visual stimuli to stop them form putting it into their phonological loop, thereby isolating the visuospatial sketchpad. This helped show overload in that area. 

What was Tesdale & Colleague’s study and what did it show?

Had people try to create a series of random numbers, and checked in on their thoughts every 3-5 minutes. Human-generated number sequences are not truly random, exhibiting patterns like an excess of sequential numbers and a deficit of repeats. This indicates that humans have an unconscious "creativity" mechanism that introduces novelty but also makes sequences predictable and non-random, suggesting that human decision-making might not be purely random.

Craik & Tulving Study (1975)

Demonstrated that the way we process information affects how well we remember it. Participants were shown words and asked to focus on either their physical appearance (shallow), sound (intermediate), or meaning (deep). Later recall was highest for words processed for meaning and lowest for words processed for appearance. This finding supported the levels-of-processing theory, showing that memory is stronger when information is encoded more deeply, shifting cognitive psychology’s focus from storage stages to the quality of mental processing.