ID Terms Test

Adam Smith

Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy; an 18th-century Scottish economist, philosopher, and author who is considered the father of modern economics; wrote "The Wealth of Nations," where he introduced the concept of the 'invisible hand' guiding market economies

Albert Einstein

German physicist who developed the theory of relativity, which states that time, space, and mass are relative to each other and not fixed; a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics; his work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science; a German-born physicist best known for the theory of relativity (mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2), he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his 1905 explanation of the photoelectric effect and "for his services to Theoretical Physics"

Alfred Dreyfus

a French Jewish military officer who was falsely accused of treason in 1894; His trial and conviction exposed deep-seated anti-Semitism within France; known for the wrongful conviction for treason of the French artillery officer of Jewish faith, and the political and judicial scandal that followed until his full rehabilitation

Anabaptism

a Protestant movement during the Reformation that rejected infant baptism and advocated for adult baptism based on personal faith; emphasized the separation of church and state; believed that the true Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone spiritual rebirth and had then been baptized into the church; no one should be forced to accept the truth of the Bible; all believers are equal; viewed baptism solely as an external witness to a believer’s conscious profession of faith; believed in separation of Church and state and the simplicity of life

Baron de Montesquieu

a French aristocrat who wanted to limit the role of the absolutist monarch; developed an idea in which governmental power is split between multiple branches that all have the ability to check the power of each other; a French lawyer and philosopher during the Age of Enlightenment who is best known for his works on separation of powers within government systems

Bartolome de las Casas

Spanish priest who travelled to New World with conquistadores and sent back to Spain reports of the brutalities against the natives; recommended to young king of Spain, Charles I, also Charles V of HRE, that the use of natives for slave labor be terminated; a 16th-century Spanish historian, social reformer and Dominican friar; became famous for his advocacy for better treatment of Native Americans in Spanish colonies and is considered one of the first advocates for universal human rights

Benito Mussolini

the first Fascist to hold power, and he was able to establish a dictatorship in Italy after the chaos of WWI; an Italian political leader who became the fascist dictator of Italy from 1925 to 1945; Creator of fascism; was appointed Italian prime minister in 1922; led Italy through WWII; leadership was marked by violence and mass propaganda

Cardinal Armand Richelieu

A powerful figure in 17th century France who served as the chief minister to King Louis XIII; known for his efforts to centralize royal power and strengthen the authority of the monarchy; ran the country for Louis XIII; president of the royal council of minsters, reshuffled the council so he could rule, devised intendants and the new robe nobility, tore down the castles of nobles, ceased military practices of Huguenots, came to an alliance with the Lutheran kings against the Habsburgs

Catherine de Medici

Queen regent for son Charles IX; tried to reconcile Protestants and Catholics, worked with both sides; actions led to St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre; queen consort of France during the Wars of Religion; employed a policy of religious tolerance, seeking to maintain peace and stability by granting concessions to both Catholics and Protestants

Cesare Beccaria

His idea was the abolishment of torture and capital punishment; believed laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes; ideas affected criminal law firm in Europe and in the US; an Italian philosophe whose main focus was legal reform; published "On Crimes and Punishment" in which he attacked torture and capital punishment; also, he believed in speedy trials and fair punishment

Charles Darwin

19th-century British naturalist and biologist who is best known for his groundbreaking work on the theory of evolution; proposed that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, a process driven by what he called natural selection; established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection

Charles de Gaulle

French military officer and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II; later became the President of France and played a crucial role in shaping post-war France; leader of Free French General that resigned in 1946 after re-establishing the free, democratic Fourth Republic; came back to lead the Fifth Republic in 1959

Chartist

Working-class activists who sought to extend voting rights to all the adult men in Britain; a working-class political reform movement in England during the early to mid-1800s that aimed to secure political rights and representation for the working class through a series of petitions and protests; working-class movement in mid-19th century Britain that campaigned for political and social reforms; they sought to increase political rights, such as the right to vote and fair representation, and improve the conditions of the working class

Conservative

Political idea in which the people regarded tradition as the basic source of human institutions and the proper state and society remained those before the French Revolution which rested on a judicious blend on monarchy, bureaucracy, aristocracy, and respectful commoners; a political philosophy that values tradition, social stability, and established institutions, often resisting abrupt change

Council of Trent

A group of Catholic bishops who met between 1545 and 1563 to determine the Catholic Church’s response to Protestantism; It was called not only to reform the church, but also to secure reconciliation with the Protestants; reaffirmed the seven sacraments of traditional Catholic teaching, thus it rejected Lutheran and Calvinist positions on Transubstantiation and other debated topics; Moreover, it greatly strengthened the Catholic church, in that it re-vitalized their sense of faith and pride for their religion

Deist

Belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a God, accompanied by the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge; belief that the life of religion and reason can be combined; a philosophical belief that posits God exists but does not interfere with the natural world; it also rejects organized religions' claims about divine revelations

Denis Diderot

French philosopher, art critic, and writer during the Enlightenment era; best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie; French philosopher, art critic, and writer; prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopedia

Diggers

Repudiated the idea of private property; a radical group during English Civil War called themselves true levelers; thought people should speak for people, believed that all land is public, started their own colony; denied Parliament's authority and rejected private ownership of land

Edmund Burke

Irish statesman who supported the American Revolution, but not the French Revolution; served in the House of Commons and is known as the father modern conservatism; fought for the development of society instead of the ownership of property; Irish statesman, author, and philosopher who is often considered the father of modern conservatism; criticized the French Revolution and advocated for gradual change rather than radical reform

Edward VI

Ten years old when he became king. Those who governed on his behalf were strongly Protestant; England moved towards Protestantism during his reign by adopting Calvinism; son of Henry VIII; very sickly, so his reign did not last very long, but his strong Protestant ideas exerted a significant influence on the religious life of the country; during his reign, the council of regency moved the Anglican Church in a more Protestant direction

Emeline Pankhurst

Organized a suffragist movement to demand voting rights for women, made controversial tactics like breaking windows to get attention to women's rights; a British political activist who is best known for organizing the UK suffragette movement and helping women win the right to vote; one of the founders of the British suffragette movement; founded the Women's Franchise League and in 1903 she founded the Women's Social and Political Union, famous for its militancy which began in 1905

Existentialism

Idea that human beings simply exist, have no higher purpose, and must exist and choose their actions for themselves; a philosophical theory that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will

Francisco Franco

a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator from 1939 until his death in 1975; fascist who sought to overthrow republic government of Spain in Spanish civil war, wanted to restore power of Catholic Church, destroy socialism and communism

Galileo

An Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution; achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism; an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who is widely recognized as one of the fathers of modern science; made significant contributions to the scientific revolution in the 17th century, including his support for Copernican heliocentrism

Georges Clemenceau

French premier during World War I and a key figure in the negotiations at the Treaty of Versailles; advocated for harsh punishment and reparations against Germany, aiming to weaken them and prevent any future aggression; French Premier who was determined to regain Alsace and Lorraine from Germany and weaken the German army as well as to use German financial resources to rebuild the French economy; "tiger of France", the French prime minister who wanted to ensure that Germany would never again threaten France

Giuseppe Garibaldi

An Italian radical who emerged as a powerful independent force in Italian politics; planned to liberate the Two Kingdoms of Sicily; Italian general, patriot, and one of the greatest guerrilla warriors of all time; played a significant role in the unification of Italy; Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento, a republican who, through his conquest of Sicily and Naples with his guerrilla Redshirts, contributed to the achievement of Italian unification under the royal house of Savoy

Giuseppe Mazzini

The first person who tried to unify all of Italy; preached a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people; brand of democratic republicanism seemed too radical for the people; Austria smashed Mazzini's republicanism in 1848; Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy in the 19th century; founded the secret revolutionary society Young Italy

Grigori Rasputin

A Russian peasant and self-proclaimed mystic who gained significant influence over Tsar Nicholas II's wife, Alexandra, prior to the revolutions of 1917; behavior caused scandals, and the Russian people began to believe that the tsar himself was under this person’s influence; advisor to the tzar and tzarina

Henry VIII

2nd of the Tudor monarchs; Had earlier been a conservative and critical of Lutheranism and reform; ”Defender of Faith;” his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism; establishes the Church of England/Anglican Church

Humanist

the scholarly interest in the study of classical texts, values and styles of Greece and Rome; contributed to the promotion of a liberal arts education based on the study of the classics, rhetoric, and history; refers to a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, preferring critical thinking and evidence over acceptance of dogma or superstition; the study of the liberal arts such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history, all based on ancient Greek and Roman texts

Jean Baptiste Colbert

French politician who served as the Minister of Finances under King Louis XIV from 1665 until his death in 1683; implemented policies that centralized and improved France's industries leading it towards becoming a dominant force in Europe; Louis XIV's controller of finances; strengthened the economy by implementing mercantilism; expanded the merchant marine and made merchant colonies in Quebec; A minister in Louis XIV’s bureaucracy, he began the new economic doctrine of mercantilism

Jesuits

A religious order known as the Society of Jesus, created to strengthen support of the Church during the Counter-Reformation; founded by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, these "soldiers of the Counter-Reformation" were committed to doing good deeds in order to achieve salvation; the Society of Jesus, were an influential religious order formed during the Counter-Reformation; they focused on education, missionary work, and promoting Catholic doctrine

Jethro Tull

English agricultural pioneer from Berkshire who helped bring about the Agricultural Revolution; perfected a horse-drawn seed drill in 1701 that economically sowed the seeds in neat rows, and later a horse-drawn hoe; created a seed drill

Johann Teztel

Overseer of the sale of Indulgences; preached that Indulgences could absolve a person from even the worst sins and save them and their loved ones from Purgatory/Hell

Johannes Guttenberg

Creator of the printing press; his invention helped spread literacy around Europe and helped spread Martin Luther’s 95 Theses; allowed books to be printed quickly and economically; used invention to print copies of the Bible; this innovation aided the spread of Renaissance and Reformation ideas throughout Europe; played an important role in completing the development of movable type printing, one of the most important technological innovations of Western civilization; his Bible, completed 1455 or 1456, was the first true book in the West produced from movable type

John Calvin

Adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone and placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God; Protestant reformer in Geneva, Switzerland

John Locke

Influential political philosopher who was widely read during the Enlightenment; like other thinkers of his day, he believed that humans lived in a state of nature before civilization created rules and traditions; influential Enlightenment thinker known for his contributions to political philosophy; his ideas about natural rights and government greatly influenced democratic thought

John Wesley

Anglican minister; created religious movement, Methodism; led to become missionary to the English people; appealed especially to lower class; his Methodism gave lower and middle classes in English society a sense of purpose and community; Anglican clergyman and Christian theologian who was an early leader in the Methodist movement; Methodists became leaders in many social justice issues of the day including prison reform and abolitionism movements

Joseph II

Enlightened despot who ruled over Austria and attempted radical reforms aimed at modernizing his empire, including religious tolerance and abolition of serfdom; Holy Roman Emperor of Austria; ordered a new unified code of laws; applauded suppression of the Jesuits; required Austrian bishops to swear submission to him; launched ambitious educational reforms; pushed for religious toleration; tried to remove the burdens of serfdom in his lands; and encourage agricultural innovation; most of his reforms fell apart after his death

Junkers

The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, they were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state; Prussian nobility; are the nobility and the landowning classes who dominated The Estates of Brandenburg and Prussia; Frederick William I’s fight for power brought him into considerable conflict with them; in his early years, he even threatened to destroy them, but the Prussian nobility was not destroyed. Instead, they were enlisted into the army. Weakened by Frederick William, the Great Elector

Karl Marx

A 19th-century philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist who co-authored 'The Communist Manifesto' with Friedrich Engels; his theories about society, economics, and politics hold that human societies develop through class struggle; a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary; addressed a wide range of issues; he is most famous "The Communist Manifesto"

Klemens von Metternich

An Austrian politician who served for the Holy Roman Empire as a foreign diplomat; also wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to another; the foreign minister of Austria who helped to manage and control the agreement made by European nations in the Congress of Vienna; was a conservative and believed in absolutism; the Austrian foreign minister who would have been glad to make a negotiated peace that would leave Napoleon on the throne of a shrunken and chastened France rather than see Russia dominate Europe; epitomized conservative reaction; opposed to the ideas of liberals and reformers because of the impact such forces would have on the multinational Hapsburg Empire

Leon Trotsky

Russian revolutionary intellectual and close adviser to Lenin; a leader of the Bolshevik Revolution, later expelled from the Communist Party and banished for his opposition to the authoritarianism of Stalin; prominent Marxist revolutionary and political leader in Soviet Russia; played a crucial role in the Russian Revolution and served as the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs during the early years of the Soviet Union

Leonardo Da Vinci

Italian painter, sculptor, engineer, scientist, and architect who dominated the High Renaissance; represents a transitional figure in the shift to High Renaissance principles; stressed the need to advance beyond realism and initiated the High Renaissance's preoccupation with idealization of nature (the ideal form)

Leopold II

Ruler of Belgium from 1865 to 1909; played a significant role in the colonization of Africa, particularly during the Scramble for Africa period; king of Belgium who employed Henry Morton Stanley to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free state in the basin of the Congo River; wholly responsible for the commission system used for the rubber trade in the Congo Free state; believed to be responsible for at least 1 million Congolese deaths

Liberal

Principal ideas liberty and equality, demanded representative government, equality before the law, freedom of press, speech, assembly, from arbitrary arrest, called for unrestricted private enterprise, no government interference in the economy (laissez-faire); political philosophy advocating for civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on economic freedom

Louis Pasteur

French chemist who began studying fermentation in 1854 at the request of brewers-found that fermentation depended on growth of living organisms and that the activity of these organisms could be suppressed by heat; French scientist who made significant contributions to the fields of microbiology and immunology; known for his groundbreaking discoveries on the principles of vaccination, pasteurization, and germ theory

Louis XVI

French king from 1774 to 1792 who was deposed during the French Revolution and executed in 1793; inherited the debt problem left by his grandfather and added to the crisis himself through heavy spending during France's involvement in the American Revolution from 1775 to 1783; last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution

Luddittes

critics of the Industrial Revolution who refused to believe in and use technology, they destroyed "looms" and factories; English textile workers who resisted the introduction of the factory system; a group of handcraft workers that attacked whole factories in Northern England by smashing machines, which they believed were putting them out of work

Machiavelli

an Italian Renaissance political philosopher who wrote a famous piece of advice on how to get and keep political power; one of the most influential political theorists of Western philosophy; turned Aristotle’s theory of virtues upside down, shaking the European conception of government at its foundations; (1469-1527) a statesman of Florence who wrote The Prince which contained a secular method of ruling a country and advocated for a strong central government-- "End justifies the means." exemplified the Renaissance preoccupation with political power

Marconi

An Italian pioneer who invented the radio; known as an Italian inventor and electrical engineer, known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmission and for his development of a radio telegraph system; sent first radio waves across Atlantic

Maria Theresa

Only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions, reigning from 1740 to 1780; implemented significant reforms in her empire's administration and military; supported education, instituted a scientific academy, and even inoculated herself and her children with a smallpox vaccine to be a good example to her citizenry; began a military academy for citizens, instituted mandatory education for all citizens, regulated payments made to serfs for their labor, created a police force, and began Austria’s first Supreme Court

Martin Luther

Reformed Augustinian monk who, through his study of the Bible, found discrepancies between Scripture and Church practices; broke away from the Church and enforced his ideas of literal interpretation of the Bible as well as obtaining Salvation through faith and God’s mercy alone

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer and philosopher considered one of the founding feminist philosophers; advocated for women's rights during the 18th century, particularly in education; English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women and argued that women, like men, need an education to become virtuous and useful, and encouraged women to enter male dominated fields such as medicine and politics

Maximilien Robespierre

A brilliant political tactician and leader of the radical Jacobins in the National Assembly; as chairman of the Committee of Public Safety, pursued a planned economy and vigorous mobilization for war; French lawyer and statesman who became one of the most influential figures during the French Revolution; known for his role in arranging executions during the Reign of Terror

John Maynard Keynes

A prominent British economist; advocated active government intervention in the economy in his "General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money;” believed the market would not always operate automatically and urged government spending to expand overall demand during an economic downturn; British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments

Medici

powerful banking family who ruled Florence in the 1400s; patrons of the arts; new commercial elites who became patrons of the great Renaissance artists; aristocratic Italian family of powerful merchants and bankers who ruled Florence in the 15th century and held power through philanthropy; patrons of the arts who helped make Florence the home of the Italian Renaissance

Napoleon Bonaparte

a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution; French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution; became the first emperor of France, his legal reform has been a major influence on many civil law jurisdictions worldwide; French emperor and military leader who conquered a huge part of Europe during his time

Neville Chamberlain

Prime minister of Great Britain who was sent to reason with Hitler seeing as they wanted to avoid war that they didn't find necessary and weren't ready for; British prime minister best known for his policy of "appeasement" toward Adolf Hitler's Germany; signed the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator; English military and political leader best known for serving as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland during the Commonwealth period following Charles I's execution; leader of the New Model Army

Otto von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany; conservative nationalist who led Prussia to victory against Austria and France and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire; Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 and served as its first chancellor until 1890

Peter the Great

The Romanov czar who initiated the westernization of Russian society by traveling to the West and incorporating techniques of manufacturing as well as manners and dress; Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. He brought Western European ideas to Russia, improved the Russian army, achieved control of the Orthodox Church, dominated the nobility, and transformed Russia into a major world power; noticeably accelerated the westernizing process of Russia; enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg; first priorities was the reorganization of the army and the creation of a navy. Employing both Russians and Europeans as officers, he conscripted peasants for twenty-five-year stints of service to build a standing army of 210,000 men; given credit for forming the first Russian navy; reorganized the central government, partly along Western lines

Prince Henry the Navigator

First European royal to heavily promote discovery and exploration; motivated by mercenary as well as missionary factors; sought to promote Portuguese economic interests (challenging Muslim monopoly of gold trade) and to further Christian influence; sponsored many exploratory voyages along Africa’s west coast during 15th century but never sailed on them himself

Queen Elizabeth I

the "Virgin Queen,” didn’t marry or have children to maintain power; Daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn; Catholics saw her as an "illegitimate" child and thus rejected her legitimacy regarding the throne; Held strongly Protestant views; beginning of religious stability; the church moved in a slightly more Protestant direction; religious policy based on moderation and compromise; wished to prevent England from being torn apart over religious reasons

Queen Isabella of Castile

Married Ferdinand II of Aragon, which led to a united Spain; known for financing Christopher Columbus' voyage to America; captured Granada from the Moors in 1492, took powers away from the Church courts and Spanish nobility, and forcibly united Spain along Catholic identity through the Inquisition

Real politick

Politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and practical considerations, rather than ideological or moral ones; A theory of international relations that focuses on the tendency of nations to operate from self-interest; the enacting of politics with pragmatic objectives based on compromises and the given circumstances rather than ideological notions

Robert Walpole

Englishman and Whig statesman who (under George I) was effectively the first British prime minister (1676-1745); successful in England because of his peace abroad, royal support, House of Commons support, and he controlled government patronage, leading to his success as Prime minister, with popular policies; had success in his life with the government and public viewpoint, and was the first person to ever be called British prime minister

David Ricardo

"Iron Law of Wages;” wealthy English stockbroker and leading economist; coldly spelled out the pessimistic implications of Malthus's thought; iron law of wages stated that because of the pressure of pop. growth, wages would always sin to subsistence level, more food came more children, never-ending cycle; known for his contributions to classical economics, particularly in the areas of comparative advantage and free trade

Rousseau

A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts; government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy; the Social Contract; Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century; political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis; Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst

Sir Isaac Newton

Known for creating the rules of classical physics and calculus; known for his rules of gravity which stood unchallenged until Einstein changed the field in the 20th century; English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists ever; laws of motion and universal gravitation laid much groundwork for classical physics

Sir Thomas More

English humanist, contemporary of Erasmus, and author of Utopia, in which he condemned governments as corrupt, and private property; later executed by Henry VIII when he refused to agree that the King was the supreme head of the English Church; 16th-century English lawyer, philosopher, and statesman who is best known for his book "Utopia;” served as Lord Chancellor under King Henry VIII and was executed for refusing to accept the king's supremacy over the Catholic Church

Social Darwinist

Claimed that certain races or classes of people were inherently superior and that social and economic inequality was a result of the "survival of the fittest;” used to support racial ideas and imperialist tendencies, including colonialism, eugenics, exploitation, and oppression; applies Charles Darwin's concept of natural selection to human societies; suggests that societies and individuals evolve and progress through competition, with the "fittest" rising to positions of wealth and power

Theodore Herzl

German Jewish Politician who advocated the policy of Zionism and the creation of a nation state for all Jewish people; Jewish Austrian journalist and political activist who is considered the father of modern political Zionism a movement to establish a Jewish homeland

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of humans; 17th-century English philosopher who is best known for his work on political philosophy; wrote "Leviathan" which established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory

Thomas Malthus

Author of Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) who claimed that population grows at an exponential rate while food production increases arithmetically, and thereby that, eventually, population growth would outpace food production; English economist who argued that population growth would eventually outpace food production, leading to societal collapse

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer and one of the most successful in Europe's Age of Discovery; known for his voyage from Europe around Africa to India, establishing a sea route that opened up trade between Europe and Asia; Portuguese explorer who became one of the most famous figures during the Age of Discovery; known for being first European navigator who sailed directly from Europe around Cape Good Hope at southern tip Africa reaching India

Vladimir Lenin

Founder of the Russian Communist Party; led the November Revolution in 1917 which established a revolutionary soviet government based on a union of workers, peasants, and soldiers; a Russian revolutionary leader and politician who served as the head of government of Soviet Russia; a Russian revolutionary leader and politician who served as the head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1922 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924; played a key role in the establishment of the USSR and the spread of communism

Voltaire

French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state

William and Mary

King and Queen of England after the glorious revolution; overthrew James II; joint monarchy of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1689 to 1694; ascended to the throne through the Glorious Revolution; accepted what became known as the "Bill of Rights,” the hallmark for constitutionalism in Europe

William Gladstone

British Liberal politician, and served as Prime Minister four separate times; proposed the Home Rule Bill, and was constantly quarreling with Disraeli, and Queen Victoria, because of his strong personality; led the Whigs; emphasized equality of opportunity and opposition to trade protectionism

William Shakespeare

English poet and dramatist; considered one of the greatest English writers; well-known and now world-renowned literary icon and playwright; had a deep appreciation for classical culture, individualism, and humanism

Winston Churchill

Greatest wartime leader; rallied the British with his speeches, infectious confidence, and bulldog determination; known for his "iron curtain" speech; led the British during WWII; agreed Hitler should be conquered; was thrown out by his own people; Prime Minister of Great Britain during World War II; played a crucial role in leading Britain and its allies to victory against Nazi Germany and was known for his strong leadership and powerful speeches

Xenophobia

Fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange; an aversion or hostility to, disdain for, or fear of foreigners, people from different cultures, or strangers