Psychology: Schools of Thought, Nature, and Heredity

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the definition of psychology, schools of thought, the nature of the discipline, fields of specialization, and the mechanics of heredity and environment.

Psychology

Derived from the Greek words "Psyche" (soul or mind) and "Logos" (science or study), it is formally defined as the science that studies mental processes, experiences, and behaviour in different contexts.

Mental Processes

Internal states including thoughts, beliefs, and feelings that are not directly observable and are reflected in brain activity, though they are not identical to it.

Mind

A system that emerges and evolves as interactions and experiences are dynamically organized; unlike the brain, it has no physical structure or specific location.

Behaviour

Observable responses, actions, or reactions of an individual toward a situation or event, which can be overt or covert.

Overt Behaviour

Actions that can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer.

Covert Behaviour

Internal or hidden responses, such as muscle twitching when thinking about a move in a game of chess.

Stimulus ($S$) and Response ($R$)

An association where an environmental or internal change ($S$) triggers a specific action or reaction ($R$).

Pure Science

A classification of Psychology due to its use of scientific methodology, objective observation, verifiable quantitative data, and the search for universal laws.

Bio-Science

A nature of psychology that explores how mental processes find expression through bodily processes, involving the brain, spinal cord, nervous system, and glands.

Social Science

A nature of psychology that focuses on humans as social beings, studying human relationships, socializations, and adjustments within socio-cultural contexts.

Eclectic Approach

Also known as the biopsychosocial perspective, it integrates ideas from diverse sources to understand the interaction of biological, psychological, and social aspects of development.

Structuralism

Considered the first school of psychology, founded by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, it focused on identifying the basic components of mental processes.

Introspection

A technique used by structuralists where trained individuals report their conscious experiences in detail in response to specific stimuli.

Functionalism

An approach influenced by William James and John Dewey that studied how the mind functions and adapts to enable humans to satisfy needs and cope with their environment.

Behaviourism

Founded by John B. Watson and developed by B.F. Skinner, it restricts psychology to the study of observable activities and conditioned responses, rejecting the study of the mind.

Psychoanalysis

A school founded by Sigmund Freud emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and instinctual drives on behavior.

Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud’s three elements of the mind: the id (primal urges), the ego (reality), and the superego (internalized ideals and values).

Gestalt Psychology

A school founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler that maintains the whole of an experience is greater than the sum of its parts.

Clinical Psychology

A field that deals with the causes, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, and eating disorders.

Counselling Psychology

A field aiming to improve everyday functioning by helping individuals solve personal problems and cope with challenging situations.

Developmental Psychology

The study of physical, social, and psychological changes throughout the entire lifespan, from conception to old age.

Educational Psychology

The study of how people learn, focusing on instructional methods and the development of educational materials for all ages.

Organizational Psychology

A field that applies psychological principles to workplace behavior, including employee training, work conditions, and management structures.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the presence of others.

Heredity

The inheritance of physical and psychological characteristics from ancestors through genes, providing a biological blueprint for development.

Zygote

A single cell formed by the mother’s ovum fertilized by the father’s sperm, containing a nucleus with chromosomes.

Chromosomes

Paired threadlike structures in the cell nucleus; humans inherit $46$ chromosomes ($23$ from each parent) composed mainly of DNA.

Alleles

Different versions of a gene that can be dominant (showing effect with one copy) or recessive (showing effect only with two copies).

Phenotype

The observable traits of an organism, such as physical build, strength, and behavioral traits.

Genotype

The traits passed on to offspring through genetic material.

Law of Uniformity or Dominance

Mendel’s law stating that an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of that allele.

Law of Variability or Segregation

Mendel’s law stating that alleles for each gene are separated randomly during the formation of reproductive cells.

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law stating that the inheritance of one gene does not affect the inheritance of any other gene.

Mental Retardation

Defined by DSM IV as sub-average intellectual functioning manifested before age $18$, categorized into Profound, Severe, Moderate, and Mild levels.

Mild Mental Retardation

An IQ range of $55$ to $70$ where individuals are considered "educable" and can develop social and communication skills.

Huntington’s Disease

A progressive, autosomal dominant brain disorder caused by mutations in the HTT gene, leading to uncontrolled movements (chorea) and cognitive decline.

Minnesota Twin Study

A famous study from $1989$ aimed at determining the role of biological factors in traits such as leadership skills and substance abuse using identical and fraternal twins.

Separated Twin Study

Research by Bouchard et al. ($1990$) on identical twins raised apart, finding similar personality traits and interests, suggesting a strong genetic factor.