Comprehensive Crime Theories: Functionalist, Marxist, Interactionist & More

Émile Durkheim

Functionalist; Social order: Crime is inevitable and functional. Performs boundary maintenance, adaptation, and promotes solidarity. Too much = anomie; too little = stagnation.

Robert K. Merton

Functionalist; Inequality & strain: Crime occurs when culturally approved goals (wealth) cannot be reached via legitimate means. Adaptations: Innovation, retreatism, rebellion, etc.

Albert Cohen

Subcultural; Working-class boys: Status frustration from educational failure leads to delinquent subcultures that invert middle-class values.

Cloward and Ohlin

Subcultural; Opportunity structures: Unequal access to crime leads to specific subcultures: Criminal (organised), Conflict (violent), or Retreatist (drugs).

Karl Marx

Marxist; Capitalism: Crime is a result of capitalist exploitation and inequality. Law reflects ruling-class power.

Gordon

Marxist; Capitalism: Crime is a rational response to capitalist inequality.

Chambliss

Marxist; Law-making: Laws protect ruling-class interests and private property; definitions of crime reflect power.

Snider

Marxist; State & regulation: The state is reluctant to regulate corporate crime due to economic dependency.

Taylor, Walton and Young

Neo-Marxist; Full theory of deviance: Crime is a meaningful response to capitalism and can be resistance; must consider individual choice and social context.

Howard Becker

Interactionist; Labelling: Deviance is a label, not an act. Moral entrepreneurs create rules; labelling can lead to a "deviant career."

Edwin Lemert

Interactionist; Deviance process: Primary deviance (minor acts) vs. Secondary deviance (identity internalised due to societal reaction).

Cicourel

Interactionist; Justice system: Police use typifications (stereotypes) to criminalise working-class youth; stats are socially constructed.

Charles Murray

Right Realist; Underclass: Crime caused by a growing underclass, poor socialisation, and absent fathers.

Wilson and Kelling

Right Realist; Social control: "Broken Windows" theory; minor disorder leads to serious crime if not met with zero tolerance.

Lea and Young

Left Realist; Inequality: Crime is caused by relative deprivation, marginalisation, and subcultures. Uses the "Square of Crime."

Heidensohn

Feminist; Gender control: Women commit less crime due to patriarchal control in home, work, and public spaces.

Carlen

Feminist; Female offending: Crime is a rational choice for women when the "patriarchal deal" (family) and "class deal" (work) fail.

Adler

Feminist; Social change: As women gain equality, they adopt traditionally "male" roles, including criminal behaviour.

Lyng

Postmodern; Risk-taking: Crime is driven by the thrill and excitement of risk-taking in late modern society.

Katz

Postmodern; Emotions: Crime is driven by emotional rewards like excitement, anger, or humiliation.

Hirschi

Control Theory; Social bonds: Conformity relies on four bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Weak bonds lead to crime.

Clarke

Control Theory; Prevention: Crime is reduced by increasing risks and reducing opportunities (e.g., target hardening, CCTV).

Stanley Cohen

Media; Moral panic: Media exaggerates crime, creating moral panics and "folk devils," triggering a cycle of control.

Hall et al

Neo-Marxist; Media & state: Media amplifies "mugging" to distract from economic crises and justify state control.

Hobbs and Dunningham

Globalisation; Crime networks: Crime is "glocal"—local crime connected through global networks.

South

Green Criminology; Environment: Focuses on environmental harm caused by corporations/states, challenging legal definitions of "crime."