Unit 4: From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795-99

what was the immediate impact of the coup of thermidor?

the following execution of robespierre

what was a longer term impact of the coup of thermidor?

the establishment of the thermidorean government

who were ‘thermidoreans’?

people who opposed the terror (jacobins + non-jacobins)

what happened to the people who were tried for their involvement in the terror?

some successfully defended themselves (fouche), others did not (d’herbois) and were sent to guyana

*fouch and d’herbois helped organise the coup of thermidor*

what was the directory?

the longest-lasting and final revolutionary government

what was the main aim of the directory?

to create a more moderate, republican constitution for france

why was the directory at a disadvantage from the start?

significant internal + external pressures → most significant being continuing continental war

when did the directory fail and what replaced it?

1799 → replaced via (yet another) coup by military rule by Napoleon Bonaparte as the ‘first consul’

why was the white terror named what it was?

white was the colour of the bourbon dynasty

what was the white terror?

name given to the anti-jacobin backlash, although not exclusively royalist

centred in areas where the jacobin terror was at its heights (lyon, marseilles, toulon)

who were the montagnards?

• radical jacobins

• also known as "the mountain" → they sat on the highest benches in the national convention, giving them their name

• influential in the terror (i.e. the execution of louis XVI and the rise of robespierre

how did montagnards react to the white terror? what are the implications of this?

many montagnards rejected their beliefs (jacobins) in favour of self-preservation

meant it was hard for people in the white terror to distinguish jacobins who contributed to the terror, so would just kill everyone to be sure

who were the ‘jeunesse doree”, who were they led by, what did they do?

“guilded youth” → led by louis-marie stanislas freron; attacked and intimidated those suspected to be involved in the terror

what was the directory’s opinion on the jeunesse doree?

they encouraged them

how would the jeunesse doree act/what kinds of things would they do?

• protest by dressing up as the nobility and royal family mockingly (wear powdered wigs and black collars)

• preach counter-revolutionary and anti-republican sentiments

why do some historians believe the jeunesse doree acted the way they did?

• it was a craze - young people wanted to be somehow involved in the revolution

• period of liberation + expression after growing up under a jacobin govt.

• its what they knew and had grown up around (violence, rowdiness, hatred)

when did the ‘chouan’ movement begin and what was it?

spring 1795

• resistance to the french revolution and government interference in traditional ways of life (laissez-faire)

• groups of 50-100 men roamed the countryside attacking grain convoys and murdering officials

• e.g. didnt like salt tax or conscription

what started in the vendee in 1794?

guerilla warfare

what did the chouan movement cause?

rebellions + murder gangs roamed the south-east

what happened at quiberon bay as a result of the chouans? when?

• june 1795

• 3000 emigre troops landed at quiberon bay + joined by 22,000 chouans

• general hoche w/ 10,000 troops forced them to surrender

• took 6000 prisoner + shot 108 chouans

what were the 4 main issues the directory faced in 1795?

• political violence: the white terror

• popular protests: prairial and germinal

• economic and financial pressures

• political divisions

when was the germinal uprising and what happened?

april 1795

• large group, including sans-culottes, demanding bread and restoration of 1793 constitution

• sparked by harsh conditions of thermidor + ending of the general maximum

• was suppressed by thermidorian convention

what is significant about the prairial uprising?

it was the last major popular insurrection of the french revolution

when was the prairial uprising and what happened?

may 1795

• like germinal, response to thermidorian policies which had led to widespread hunger and poverty

• demanded bread + 1793 constitution

• met by force and suppression

what was the main financial/economic pressure the directory faced in 1795?

abolished price controls → govt. had to pay market prices for resources

+ bad harvests (especially in winter 1795)

give a brief overview of the political divisions the directory faced in 1795.

• keen to be moderate

• there were extreme right- and left-wings left

• in addition to fear of a royalist resurgence

give 2 factors in the directory’s favour in 1795.

• the shattered power of the sans-culottes

• failure of the prairial and germinal protests

therefore no power threat

what was the aim of the thermidorian government when creating the third revolutionary constitution?

aimed to avoid political extremism and not give rise to dictatorships

how was the third revolutionary constitution structured?

in a bicameral structure (2 chambers) similar to the house of lords and commons

give 3 ways the design of the government in 1795 was intended to prevent tyranny.

1. separation of power w/ clear functions and limitations (the 2 chambers and executive)

2. time-limited powers e.g. directors replaced 1x each year

3. clear divisions in law-making → more democratic

what were the 2 chambers in the constitution in 1795?

• council of the ancients

• council of the five hundred

what did the council of ancients do?

• (kind of) house of lords

• approved or refused laws

• composed of 250 men

what did the council of five hundred do?

• (kind of) house of commons

• initiated, debated, and drafted legislation

how was the electoral process designed to prevent royalist resurgence and tyranny?

• 1/3 of members of councils retired and replaced each year

• 2/3 of first council must have served in the convention (i.e. must be republican)

how was the executive (the directory) chosen?

• consisted of 5 men

• chosen by the council of ancients

• from a list drawn up by the council of five hundred

how were the directory’s powers limited?

• no part in creation of legislation

• no right of veto

• couldn’t declare war or peace

what was the directory in charge of?

law enforcement and foreign and military affairs

what were the 3 main issues the directory faced?

1. the constitution

2. the economy and finance

3. the establishment of martial law

what were some of the weaknesses of the constitution?

• trying to create a system to directly oppose that of the terror and tyranny led to a system that lacked leadership and direction

• directors were supposed to deal w/ foreign affairs but couldnt declare war or peace

• directors were supposed to organise the military but had no control of the finances necessary to do so

• no room for amendment or negotiation of legislation - if council of ancient disproved something council of five hundred put forward it was simply rejected

• elections being too frequent meant the councils lacked stability

overall, was the constitution in 1795 a “good” one? why and why not?

no → very baseless - trying too hard to be the polar opposite of the terror - and being too moderate, creating a vacuum w/ no political sway

but → a constitution by definition is meant to be politically neutral so it does technically succeed

what were the 3 weaknesses of the economy and finance that the constitution faced from 1795?

• currency → by feb 1796 the assignat was basically worthless

• debt → by 1797, the interest france was paying on their debt was 240 million francs (1/4 of their expenditure)

• taxation → stable tax replacement system had never been established + universal land tax didnt generate revenue

briefly and chronologically, how was the economy reformed by the constitution after 1795?

• feb 1796 - assignat abolished

• march 1796 - new currency, the mandate

• by july 1796 - mandates worth less than 5% of their nominal value (100%) in march

• feb 1797 - mandates are now so worthless they are illegal tender

• govt. returns to coinage → but there wasnt enough in circulation

• when coinage fails, they return to bartering (natural economy)

• bartering mitigated when treasure wagons with new coinage arrive

where did the french governments debt originally come from?

the ancien regime (which they inherited from giving help in the american revolution mostly)

briefly and chronologically, how was the french govts debt resolved by the constitution?

• sept 1797 - directory declared themselves bankrupt and say they cant pay the debt

• directory gets state bonds (like vouchers) which are used to purchase biens nationaux (land)

• the more state bonds issued, the less theyre worth (like a pie chart)

• 2/3 of national debt wiped out using state bonds

what was the downside of using state bonds to clear national debt?

created internal tension within the government - made worse by the fact they are unstable and cant make any decisions

what was the war of the first coalition?

a set of wars that european powers fought from 1792-97 against, initially, the constitutional kingdom of france and then the french republic that succeeded it

why was france hard to beat in the war?

they were europes biggest superpower for years

which country was the consistent opponent of france and why?

britain:

• rich

• had a really strong navy

• but their domestic political statement (made after glorious rev.) meant they did not have an army

what did the convention see the war as in relation to the revolution?

a means of spreading the revolution

what did the girondins see the war as in relation to the revolution?

• would put them in control (e.g. seize wealth of austria)

• way to get rid of royalists/energise the revolution

• would help the french economy (create more jobs)

• they didnt think the war would extend as far as it did

what did the army becoming radicalised mean for the revolution?

the rhetoric of ‘if you’re not with us, you’re against us’ became popularised → i.e. if you’re against the war, you’re against the revolution

how did the war start out for france and why?

disastrously → poor discipline, unrest in army

what was the pivotal moment for france during the war?

september 1792 → victory at valmy (due to dumouriez)

as a result of the success at valmy, how did the jacobins begin to view the sans-culottes?

as a good way of enacting change using violent means

what are 2 ways the war had an impact on the terror (1793-4)?

• instrumental in the creation of the CPS

• provided moral justification for the use of terror and centralisation

how did the CPS contribute to the war effort?

• organised mass mobilisation against first coalition

• suppressed federalist revolts + civil war in vendee

• dealt w/ counter-revolutionaries

how was the power of the CPS formalised?

convention formalised their power in the ‘law of 14 frimaire’ (the constitution of the terror)

how was the terror continued even after the war had simmered?

robespierre argued for the continuation of the terror in feb 1794 even after threat to frances borders was reduced

what brought napoleon to national attention and when?

capture of toulon in 1793

how were napoleon and barras connected?

• napoleon received patronage from barras after becoming well-known

• he married barras’ former mistress, josephine

why was napoleon removed from the list of active officers and when?

may 1795 → he refused to take command of the artillery against the vendee

why was napoleon briefly arrested in 1794?

likely because he was affiliated with the jacobins - and robespierre

what battle manoeuvre/tactic is napoleon famous for and why?

grapeshot → killed around 400 protestors at the vendemiaire uprising

when was the vendemiaire uprising?

1-5 october 1795

why was napoleon promoted to commander of the army at age 26 without ever commanding a force on the battlefield?

for his successful use of grapeshot at vendemiaire

what does the directory describe the reason for the army’s success like (quote)?

the army was “nourished with the fruits of its own courage”

when was the verona declaration and what did it say?

• june 1795

• manifesto issued by louis XVIII, brother of louis XVI, after the death of louis XVII

• served as a political platform to introduce his vision for restoring the french monarchy + in response to the revolution

why was the verona declaration alarming?

declaration was very royalist (no sh*t sherlock) and absolutist e.g. asserted return of ancien regime and lands to refractory priests and emigres

alarming because france favoured a constitutional monarchy

who were the chouannerie?

anti-jacobin royalists who appeared during the federalist revolts

how did the directory use the army from 1795-99?

directory relied on the army domestically - it seemed france was being defended by the army, not the directory

when was the chouannerie threat during the directory?

1795-1796

why were the chouannerie a serious threat in 1795-96?

• massive emigre threat - opposition to the directory

• they had control of brittany - close to british coastline, who also hated france

• bolstered by conscription deserters

what threat was triggered by the early success of the chouannerie threat?

the vendean threat

what caused/triggered the vendean threat in 1796?

• triggered by early success of the chouannerie

• reintroduction of catholicism

• high rent and taxes

• famine

what set apart the violence in the vendee from the violence with the chouannerie in 1795-6?

the vendee engaged in guerilla warfare, the chouan were more organised

when and what did the comte d’artois (charles X, louis XVIII’s brother) try to do that meant the directory sent the army to intervene yet again?

attempted to invade mainland france from the isle of yeu in 1796

how was a cycle of warfare developing due to domestic opposition in 1795-6?

directory uses the army to suppress uprisings but doesnt change legislation, therefore they keep happening and they become reliant on the army for protection

what battle turned the war of the first coalition in france’s favour?

battle of fleurus , june 1794

what was the treaty that ended the war of the first coalition and what was interesting about who put it forward?

treaty of campo-formio, october 1797

put forward, not by the directory, but by napoleon (in defiance of the directory)

what was jourdan’s law, when was it introduced, and why?

• introduced compulsory conscription for all men aged 20-25 for five years

• september 1798

• needed men for the war of the second coalition

when did the war of the second coalition start?

may 1798

what did jourdan’s law lead to?

• re-emergence of the chouannerie

• conscription targets were not met (only 19% did it)

  • men were breaking their own legs and knocking out teeth so they didnt have to

what was the reaction to the war of the second coalition?

overall, a lot of resistance - war weariness set in post 1795

why did the need for a french army increase as french forces conquered more land?

because in order to pay the army (which was paid after their jobs were complete) they had to seize more money from lands which would create a cycle

give 5 ways foreign war caused domestic threats in 1795-99.

• having to introduce conscription (jourdan’s law)

• harder to keep funding the army…

• …exacerbated by famine and starvation nationally…

• …which caused war weariness post-1795

• overall disillusionment causes resistance

give 5 ways domestic threats caused foreign war in 1795-99.

• chouannerie and vendee are potential bases for foreign armies (already opposition there)

• necessity to maintain republic/revolution

• threat of louis XVIII creates foreign threat…

• …necessitates an invasian from france to avoid it happening the other way

• dissatisfaction necessitates wide-scale reach for control (e.g. conscription)

when was the coup of floreal?

may 1798

how did the after-effects of the coup of fructidor cause the coup of floreal?

• broke the power of the royalists enough that 1798 elections saw decline in support

• directory had to rely on support from left

• jacobins capitalised on this situation

• directory became panicked - wanted to be more moderate

what rumour did the directory instigate which caused the outbreak of the coup of floreal?

instigated rumours that jacobins posed a threat to the republic and were aiming to destroy the constitution

what happened during the coup of floreal?

• jacobins pushed council of five hundred into agreeing annual elections

• 127 deputies lost their seats → seats replaced by people chosen by the directory

why is the coup of floreal significant?

went against the policies of the constitution that tried to prevent tyranny and enact democracy → showed how broken the political system is

how did how the coup of floreal (1798) was handled differ from how the coup of fructidor (1797) was handled?

coup of fructidor relied on military intervention, unlike the coup of floreal

what are the wider consequences of the coup of floreal?

• eroded peoples beliefs that the 1795 constitution could work

• growing unrest and political divisions

• only way for directory to maintain majority support within councils was to abuse the already limited democracy

• war of second coalition and failure of jourdan’s law increased frustration within govt.

who was abbe sieyes?

a director in the directory

republican who believed in the values of the revolution, but wasn’t a jacobin

what did sieyes fear would happen to the directory?

feared that it would end in jacobin or royalist dominance

what did abbe sieyes do to the directory?

brought it down from the inside

why did sieyes seek out napoleon?

knew that he needed military support and a strong general to take down the directory

why did sieyes choose napoleon to help him bring down the directory?

he recognised that critics of the govt. favoured a return to strong leadership - which required a figurehead i.e. napoleon

when was the coup of brumaire?

november 1799

why is the coup of brumaire significant?

marks the collapse of the directory