IB Psychology Cognitive Studies

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy effect

The phenomenon where items presented at the beginning of a list are recalled better than those in the middle.

Recency effect

The phenomenon where items presented at the end of a list are recalled better than those in the middle.

Immediate recall condition

Participants recall items immediately after being shown the list.

10-second interference task

A task where participants count backwards aloud from a given number in threes for 10 seconds before recalling the list.

30-second interference task

A task where participants count backwards aloud from a given number in threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list.

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)

A study investigating the serial position effect to support the Multi-Store Model of Memory.

Bartlett (1932)

A study investigating the effect of cultural schemas on recall of a culturally unfamiliar story.

Cultural schemas

Mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret information based on cultural experiences.

Serial reproduction

A procedure where one participant reads a story and reproduces it for the next participant to recall.

Omission

The act of ignoring or missing key details in a story during recall.

Assimilation

The process of changing story details to fit one's own cultural understanding.

Sharpening

The process of altering story details to make them more coherent or understandable based on personal context.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Independent measures design

An experimental design where different participants are assigned to different conditions.

Ecological validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to real-world settings.

Well-controlled lab experiment

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment to minimize extraneous variables.

Quantitative measurement

The process of measuring variables in numerical terms for statistical analysis.

Participants

Individuals who take part in a study or experiment.

Aim

The purpose or objective of a study.

Results

The findings obtained from conducting a study or experiment.

Conclusion

The summary of findings and implications derived from the results of a study.

Levelling

The story became shorter - the original story was approximately 350 words and the participants' version was around 180 words.

Cultural schemas

Cultural schemas contribute to the reconstructive nature of memory.

Reconstructive memory

Memory is an active process in which pre-existing information and expectations may interfere with the accuracy and reliability of the memory.

Serial reproduction

Bartlett's procedure is replicable which means that it could be repeated to check for reliability.

Temporal validity

The results may lack temporal validity due to the dated nature of the research.

Sample limitations

Bartlett's sample was small and limited to an elite demographic of university students who were all male, making the findings difficult to generalise.

Dual Process Model

Aim to investigate the effect of disfluency on S1 and S2 thinking.

Disfluency

Operationalised using a difficult-to-read font.

Cognitive Reflection Tests (CRT)

The CRT comprised questions that required cognitive energy to solve.

S1 thinking

The quick, easiest answer that is often incorrect.

S2 thinking

Requires deeper processing than S1 and is triggered by concentration.

Dependent variable

Measured as the number of correct responses per condition.

Fluent condition

CRT questions presented in a fluent (easy-to-read) font (black, 12-point).

Disfluent condition

CRT questions presented in a disfluent (difficult-to-read) font (grey, italic, 10-point).

Hypothesis of Alter et al.

The disfluent font would require participants to concentrate more, triggering S2 thinking.

Results of Alter et al.

Participants in the disfluent condition answered more CRT questions correctly than participants in the fluent condition.

Conclusion of Alter et al.

Having to concentrate on a disfluent font may trigger S2 thinking as it requires more cognitive energy.

Dual Process Model

A psychological theory that describes two systems of thinking: System 1 (S1) is fast and intuitive, while System 2 (S2) is slower and more deliberative.

Cognitive Reflection Test

A test designed to measure an individual's ability to suppress an intuitive and spontaneous wrong answer in favor of a reflective and deliberative right answer.

Disfluency

A measure of difficulty in processing information, which can affect decision-making and cognitive performance.

Empathy

The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person.

Rating scale

A scale used to measure attitudes or feelings, typically ranging from a minimum to a maximum value.

Research triangulation

The use of multiple methods or data sources in a study to enhance the credibility and validity of the findings.

Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

A study investigating empathy as a product of either S1 or S2 thinking as part of the Dual Process Model.

Participants in Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

A self-selecting sample of 72 participants (47 male, 32 female; mean age = 47) from executive-education programmes at Harvard University.

Procedure of Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

Participants were randomly paired for mock interviews, completed emotion schedules, and answered three CRT questions.

Results of Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

Participants who scored highest on the CRT were more accurate in their empathy ratings during the mock interview.

Conclusion of Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

S2 thinkers may be more empathic than S1 thinkers.

Strengths of Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

The study utilized research triangulation and focused on behavioral variables, increasing ecological validity.

Limitations of Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

Empathy is complex and multi-layered, making it difficult to quantify using a rating scale.

Bartlett (1932)

A study investigating the effect of cultural schemas on reconstructive memory.

Participants in Bartlett (1932)

20 male undergraduate students from the University of Cambridge in the UK.

Procedure of Bartlett (1932)

Involved serial reproduction, where one participant read and reproduced a story, passing it on to subsequent participants.

Results of Bartlett (1932)

The resulting stories bore little similarity to the original Native American folk tale.

Sample characteristics in Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

72% European American, 14% African American, 6% Asian, 4% Latin American, and 4% other.

Mock interview duration in Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

Participants were given three minutes to complete the mock interview.

Mood items in Lerner & Mal-Kellams (2016)

Participants rated their emotions on 20 different mood items on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely).

S1 thinking

Fast, automatic, and often unconscious mode of thinking.

S2 thinking

Slow, deliberate, and conscious mode of thinking.

Omission

Key details of the story were ignored or missed out, particularly unfamiliar or unpleasant details.

Assimilation

Story details were changed to suit the participants' own cultural schemas.

Levelling

The story became shorter; the original story was approximately 350 words and the participants' version was around 180 words.

Strengths of Bartlett's study

Bartlett's study was one of the first pieces of research to highlight the role of schema in reconstructive memory.

Application of schema understanding

Understanding how schemas may interfere with accurate recall has good application to educational settings and the criminal justice system.

Limitations of Bartlett's study

The research is dated and may lack temporal validity due to changes in awareness of multi-cultural issues.

Memory distortions

It is unclear whether memory distortions were due to schematic interference or other factors such as poor overall memory.

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Key study investigating the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony.

Aim of Loftus & Palmer's study

To investigate the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony (EWT).

Participants in Experiment 1

45 undergraduate students from the University of Washington, USA.

Participants in Experiment 2

150 participants from the same university.

Procedure of Experiment 1

Participants were shown seven film clips of traffic accidents and filled in a questionnaire based on what they had witnessed.

Critical question in Experiment 1

Participants were asked, 'About how fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit/bumped/collided/contacted each other?'

Conditions in Experiment 1

Each participant was in one of the five conditions, asked only one of the critical questions containing one verb.

Speed estimation in Experiment 1

Participants had to estimate the speed in miles per hour.

Procedure of Experiment 2

150 participants watched a one-minute film of a multiple-car accident and answered questions about the film.

Critical question in Experiment 2

Participants were asked, 'How fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed each other?'

Conditions in Experiment 2

Participants were randomly allocated to either the 'smashed', 'hit' or control condition.

Eyewitness testimony

A legal term referring to an account given by people of an event they witnessed.

Information after the event

Details provided to witnesses after an event that may influence their recollection.

Response bias

A tendency for participants to respond in a certain way due to the wording of questions.

Experiment 1 results

Participants in the 'smashed' condition estimated the highest speed at 40.8 mph; participants in the 'contacted' condition estimated the lowest speed at 31.8 mph.

Experiment 2 results

43 participants in the 'Smashed' condition reported having seen broken glass compared to 7 participants in the 'Hit' condition.

Conclusion of Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Leading questions may lead to unreliable eyewitness testimony by providing information after the event.

Strength of Loftus & Palmer (1974)

The research has huge implications for how eyewitness testimonies should be questioned.

Standardised procedure

A consistent method used in research that allows for replication and increases reliability.

Ecological validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to real-life settings.

Limitations of Loftus & Palmer (1974)

Watching recorded footage of a traffic accident is not the same as experiencing the event in real life.

Emotive quality of words

The emotional impact of certain words that may influence participants' responses.

Aim of Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

To investigate illusory correlation as a cognitive bias.

Participants in Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

40 undergraduate students from a university in New York state, USA (20 males; 20 females).

Procedure of Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

Participants were presented with two hypothetical groups, A and B, with 26 and 13 members respectively.

Behaviour classification in Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

Behaviours were classified as desirable or undesirable, with a ratio of 9:4 (positive to negative) for both groups.

Attribution of behaviours in Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

Participants attributed more desirable social behaviours to Group A (6.7) than to Group B (6.0).

Undesirable behaviours attribution in Hamilton & Gifford (1976)

Undesirable social behaviours were attributed more to Group B (5.6) than to Group A (4.4).

Illusory correlation conclusion

The results suggest that illusory correlation may be based on group size, linking undesirable behaviours more often to the minority group.

Illusory correlation

A cognitive bias where people perceive a relationship between two variables even when no such relationship exists.

Minority

A group that is smaller in number compared to the majority within a society.

Majority

A group that is larger in number compared to the minority within a society.