Research methods

What is an aim?

A general statement describing what the researcher intends to investigate, outlining the purpose of the study.

What is operationalisation?

Where a behaviour is clearly defined to make it measurable and quantifiable

What is a hypothesis?

A clear, precise and testable statement indicating the relationship or differences between the variables to be investigated.

What is acquiescence bias?

Survey respondents agree with research statements, without the action being a true reflection of their own position or the question itself. So they could tick the same line of boxes down one side (agree, agree agree).

What is a directional hypothesis?

Specifies the expected direction of the difference or relationship.

When is a directional hypothesis used?

When prior research suggests a particular outcome.

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

Doesn’t specify the direction of the relationship or difference.

When is a non-directional hypothesis used?

When no prior research is available to suggest a specifc outcome.

What is the independant variable?

The variable that the researcher has control over and manipulates.

What is the dependant variable?

The variable that is affected by the independant variable. It isn’t controlled by the researcher and is measured to observe the outcome of the study.

What does a control group experience?

No treatment, a standard treatment with a known effect or a placebo.

What does an experimental group experience?

The treatment/experience that the researcher is interested in studying.

What is an extraneous variable?

Variables that could influence performance but do not systemically vary with the independant variable. While they may have an impact on the depdant variable, they do so in a random, non-systematic way.

What is a confounding variable?

These variables systematically vary with the independant variable

What are demand characteristics?

Occure when participants try to guess the aim of the research and alter their behaviour consciously or unconsciously, to align with or oppose the study’s aims.

What is the please-U effect?

Participants over-perform in an attempt to please or support the experimenter’s expectations.

What is the Screw-U effect?

Participants intentionally under-perform in an effort to sabotage or undermine the experiment.

When do investigator effects occur?

When the researcher unintentionally or unconsciously influences the outcome of the research, for example through body language or tone.

What is randomisation?

The use of chance in the design of materials and conditions to avoid bias and potential systematic influences by the researcher.

What is standardisation?

It ensures that all participants are exposed to the same environment, information and experience. This consistency across participants helps reduce variability that could stem from differences in how the experiment is conducted for each individual.

What is counterbalancing?

A technique used to control for order effects in a repeated measures design.

How is counterbalancing done?

The participant sample is randomly split into 2 equal groups. One group complete the conditions in one order whilst the other group completes the conditions in the reverse order.

What is an independent groups design?

Participants are divided into 2 separate groups: one group completes one condition whilst the other group completes the other condition.

What are the strengths of an independant groups design?

It eliminates order effects as participants only experience one condition which improves internal validity.

It’s quick and easy to administer as each pp only completes one experience.

It has a more chances to reduced awareness of the study aim as pps are exposed to just one condition. This lowers the risk of demand characteristics.

What are the weaknesses of an independent groups design?

Participant differences - individual differences in different groups can act as extraneous variables which may affect the DV and reduce the internal validity.

Higher sample requirement - this increases time, cost and resource demands.

What is a repeated measures design?

The same participants take part in both conditions.

What are the strengths of a repeated measures design?

Economical - fewer pps are needed which saves time and money, making it more efficient.

It controls participant variables - individual differences are eliminated as the same pps take part in all conditions which increases internal validity.

What are the weaknesses of a repeated measures design?

Order effects - performance may be influenced by practice or fatigue when pps complete multiple conditions. Reduces internal validity.

Greater chance of demand characteristics - as pps experience all the conditions they are more likely to guess the study’s aim and potentially alter their behaviour. This reduces internal validity.

What is a matched pairs design?

Participants are divided into pairs based on key characteristics (such as age or IQ) and each pair is then split so that one member completes one condition and the other pp completes the other condition.

What are the strengths of a matched pairs design?

It reduces participant variables - as pps are matched on key characteristics, it minimises differences between groups, improving internal validity.

No order effects: As each pp only takes part in one condition, it avoides issues such as practice or fatigue that may influence the results, thus enhancing internal validity.

What are the weaknesses of a matched pairs design?

Time-consuming and resource-intensive - matching pps requires significant time as individuals need to be indentified and paired based on relevant characteristics. This reduces practicality.

Matching limitations: It’s difficult to achieve perfect matches and even small mismatches could introduce variability, slightly reducing internal validity.

What is a laboratory experiment?

A study conducted in a controlled, artificial environment where the participants are removed from their natural setting. Extraneous variables can be controlled, with tasks typically standardised.

What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?

High control of extraneous variables - the controlled environment ensures that changes in the DV are due to the manipulation of the IV, improving internal validity.

Causal relationships can be established: The high level of control allows researchers to draw strong conclusions about cause and effect.

Standardisation increases reliability: Makes the study easier to replicate.

What are the weaknesses of a lab study?

Low ecological validity: The artificial nature of the setting means findings may not generalise to real world setting - reducing external validity.

Low mundane realism - tasks and situations may not reflect everyday life, so pps behaviour may not represent real-world actions.

Demand characteristics - likely the pps are aware they are in a study and so may guess its aim which cause them to change their behaviour - reducing internal validity.

What is a field experiment?

Conducted in a real-world setting where participants remain in their natural environment. Researchers manipulate the IV, while observing behaviour in a way that reflects everyday life.

What are the strengths of a field experiment?

High ecological validity: Behaviour in natural settings is more likely to reflect real-life actions, improving external validity.

Reduced demand characteristics: Participants may be unaware they are part of an experiment - improving internal validity.

What are the weaknesses of a field experiment?

Less control over extraneous variables: The natural environment makes it difficult to control external factors that could influence the DV - reducing internal validity.

Difficult to replication: The variability of real-world settings makes replication challenging, reducing reliability.

Ethical issues: Participants may not know they are being studied, raising concerns about informed consent.

What’s a natural experiment?

The independent variable is naturally occuring and not manipulated by the researcher. They can take place in a lab or real-world setting.

What are the strengths of a natural experiment?

Real-world relevance: Findings often address significant event, making them highly applicable and improving external validity.

Low demand characteristics: Participants are typically unaware they’re part of a study so their behaviour is natural, improving internal validity.

What are the weaknesses of natural experiment?

Limited to naturally occuring situations: Researchers are restricted to studying events or changes that occur naturally.

Difficult to control extraneous variables: The lack of control over the IV and other factors makes it harder to establish cause and effect, reducing internal validity.

Causal relationships are difficult to establish: Since the IV isn’t directly manipulated, it’s harder to confirm whether changes in the DV are due to the IV or other factors.

What is a quasi-experiment?

The IV is based on a pre-existing differences between participants. The researcher doesn’t manipulate the IV, but it is used to compare differences in the DV.

What are the strengths of a quasi-experiment?

Controlled conditions: They are often carried out in controlled environments, improving internal validity by reducing the impact of extraneous variables.

Useful for comparisons: Allows researchers to compare groups when random allocation isn’t possible or ethical.

What are the weaknesses of a quasi-experiment?

No random allocation: Without random assignment, differences in the DV could be due to individual differences rather than the IV - reducing internal validity

Causal relationships are harder to establish: Since the IV isn’t manipulated, it’s challenging to determine whether changes in the DV are caused by the IV or other confounding factors.

What is systematic sampling?

Every Nth member of the target population is chosen

How is systematic sampling done?

The researcher compiles a list of all members of the target population.

They then select every Nth (3rd, 5th etc) person on the list.

What are the strengths of systematic sampling?

No researcher bias: The process is pre-determined, so the researcher has no control over participant selection, reducing bias.

Potentially representative: If the target population is sufficiently diverse and the sample size is large, this method can provide a representative sample.

What are the weaknesses in systematic sampling?

It requires a complete list: A comprehensive list of the target population can be difficult or impossible to obtain, especially in large populations.

Risk of patterns in the list: If the population list has a hidden pattern (e.g. every Nth person shares a trait), it may introduce bias instead of reducing it.

What is random sampling?

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

How is random sampling?

The researcher compiles a list of all members of the target population and assigns each person a number.

Using a random number generator or drawing names from a hat, they will select participants until all of them have been assigned a group.

What are the strengths of random sampling?

Unbiased selection: This random process eliminates researcher control over who is included, reducing bias.

Higher chance of representativeness: When sample sizes are sufficiently large, this method ensures diverse representation across the population.

What are the weaknesses of random sampling?

Impractical for larger populations: The need for a complete list makes it time-consuming and often unfeasible for very large or dynamic populations.

Volunteer bias: Selected participants may refuse to participate, skewing the sample towards those who are motivated or unaviable.

What is stratified sampling?

The sample reflects the proportion of subgroups (strata) within the target population.

How is stratified sampling done?

The researcher identifies the proportion of each stratum in the population and calculates the number of participants required for each group. The pps are then randomly selected from a larger sample.

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

Accurate population representation: Ensures that keysubgroups are proportionally represented, making the findings more generalisable.

Minimises researcher bias: Participants are randomly selected within each stratum, preventing consciosu or unconscious selection bias.

What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?

Time-consuming and complex: Identifying subgroups and ensuring proportional representation can be resource-intensive.

Doesn’t account for difference within subgroups: Stratified sampling ignores individal diferences within them.

What is opportunity sampling?

Participants are chosen based on availability and willingness to participate at the time of the study.

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

Quick and practical: Requires minimal time, effort and resources, making it suitable for exploratory or preliminary research.

What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?

Unrepresentative sample: Likely to include participants from a specific location or context, making it difficult to generalise findings to the wider population.

Researchers bias: The researcher has control over who is selected, which can introduce conscious or unconscious bias, choosing people who fit their expectations.

What is volunteer sampling?

Participants self-select to take part in the study, often in response to advertisements.

What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

Easy to recruit participants: Minimal effort is required from the researcher to gather a sample, making it cost-effective for smaller studies.

What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?

Volunteer bias: The sample may attract specifc types of people who are aware they are in a study, which limits generalisability.

Self-selection effects: Participants may share common traits (e.g. being proactive) which can reduce variability and skew findings.

What is informed consent?

Participants must recieve comprehensive information about the research, including the aims, procedures, their rights and any risks involved.

How do participants under 16 consent to a study?

They must obtain consent from one of their parents or guardians.

What is the right to withdraw?

Before participating, participants should be informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty. They do not need to give a reason for withdrawing, and if they do, their data should be discarded.

How should researchers navigate deception?

Researchers should avoid misleading participants about the nature of the study.

However, in some cases, deception may be necessary to ensure the validity of results, so if it is used, it is crucial to debreif participants at the end of the study to reveal the true aims and purposes of the research.

How are studys’ data kept private and confidential?

Participants personal data should be kept anonymous and confidential. When reporting data, participants’ identities should not be revealed (e.g. by using initials or participant numbers instead of names) to protect their privacy.

What happens in a debreifing?

After the study concludes, participants must be informed of the study’s true aims and allowed to clarify any misunderstandings or concerns with the researchers.

If deception was used, it’s crucial that participants understand why.

Researchers should ensure that participants leave the study in a positive physical and mental state. If necessary, participants should be provided with contact information for relevant services.

What is a pilot study?

It’s a small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the full research is conducted.

What are the aims of a pilot study?

To test whether the procedures, material and measuring scales are effective.

To allow the researcher to make necessary adjustments to the study before the full-scale investigation is conducted.

What is a single-blind procedure?

The participants don’t know the aims of the study but the researcher does.

What is the strength of a single-blind procedure?

It helps control for demand characteristics, reducing the likelihood that participants will change their behaviour based on their knowledge of the study.

What is a double-blind procedure?

Neither the participants nor the experimenter (who interacts with the participants) know the true aims of the study or the group to which the participants belong.

What are the strengths of a double-blind procedure?

This approach helps reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.

What is a naturalistic observation?

Takes place in the natural environment where the target behaviour would typically occur.

What is a controlled observation?

Behaviour is observed in a structured, controlled environment where variables can be managed.

What is a strength of a naturalistic observation?

It has high external validity as findings can be generalised to real life, since behaviour is observed in its normal setting.

What’s the weakness of a naturalistic observation?

They’re hard to replicate due to the uncontrolled environment and extraneous variables are not controlled, which can affect reliability.

What is the strength of a controlled observation?

They have high internal validity as extraneous variables are controlled, allowing better isolation of the independent variable.

What are the weaknesses of a controlled observation:

Lack of generalisability due to the artificial environment which reduces external validity.

What is a covert observation?

The observer is hidden and participants are unaware that they are being observed.

What is an overt observation?

The observer is visible and participants are fully aware they’re being observed.

What are the strengths of a covert observation?

No participant reactivity since participants are unaware, increasing internal validity.

What are the weaknesses of a covert observation?

Can be ethically questionable as people may not want to be observed without their knowledge.

What is a participant observation?

The researcher becomes part of the group they’re observing.

What is a non-participant observation?

The researcher remains outside of the group and observes from a distance.

What are the strengths of a participant observation?

It provides deeper insight as the researcher experiences the group’s behaviour first-hand, potentially increasing validity.

What are the weaknesses of a participant observation?

The researcher may lose objectivity by “going native” and becoming too involved, blurring the line between observer and participant.

What are the strengths of a non-participant observation?

The researcher maintains objectivity due to psychological distance from the group.

What are the weaknesses of a non-participant observation?

The researcher may miss valuable insight because they are too distant and detached.

What is a structured observation?

An observation that uses a predetermined coding scheme or list of behaviours to systematically observe and record participants’ behaviour.

What is an unstructured observation?

The researcher records everything they see without using predefined categories, often producing qualitative data.

What are the strengths of a structured observations?

Easier to record and more systematic.

Data is often quantitative, making it easier to analyse and compare.

Wbhat are the weaknesses of a structured observation?

The researchers may miss subtle or unexpected behaviours not included in the coding scheme.

What are the strengths of an unstructured observation?

Provides rich, detailed data, capturing a wider range of behaviours.

What are the weaknesses of an unstructured observation?

They’re more difficult to record and analyse due to the qualitative nature of the data.

More prone to observer bias.

What are behavioural categories?

Behavioural categories involve breaking down target behaviours into smaller, observable components to make the behaviour measurable and easier to record.

What should behavioural categories be?

• Clear and unambiguous.

• Observable, measurable, and self-evident.

• Exclusive (not overlapping), ensuring no room for inference.

What is event sampling?

It involves counting the number of times a specific behaviour occurs during a session.

What is time sampling?

Behaviour is recorded at specific time intervals.

What are the strengths of event sampling?

It;s effective for frequently occuring behaviours - ensures all relevant behaviours are captured.