component 2 psychology

definitions

co-variables

case study

construct validity

extraneous

2 or more quantities being measured in a correlation that may or may not vary with each other

an in depth detailed investigation about a single subject

how well a test measures the psychological concept it intends to measure

variables other than the iv that affect the dv

confounding variables

variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher that may affect some participants behaviours

operationalisation variables

giving a definition of a behaviour being measured. Allows for repetition as it is an agreed value

alternative hypothesis

a testable statement where a piece of research attempts to support or reject

quasi experiment

the experimenter has not deliberately measured the IV and participants are nor randomly allocated

participant observation

where the researcher takes on the role of the participant whilst observing other participants behaviours

non participant

researcher watches and records participants behaviours without interfering

content analysis

involves the exploration of behaviour. Qualitative data is converted into quantitative so that it can be easily compared.

questionnaire

includes written questions which generate open and closed answers.

semi structured

asking questions usually face to face. Involves follow up questions that allow for deeper responses

correlational studies

involves comparing 2 variables to see if there is a relationship between them without manipulating them

cross sectional studies

involves comparing groups of people at one point in time to assess differences or relationships.

sampling frames

identifying a group of participants when it is unrealistic to study the whole target population

opportunity sampling

when participants are selected at the reaserchers convenience with knowing very little detail about the research

advantage:easy way to gain participants

weakness: bias- they may choose someone based on appearance

systematic sampling

where every nth person is selected from a list of the target population, ensuring a representative sample.

stratified sampling

target group is divided into sub groups. Participants selected randomly from each target groupto ensure that the sample reflects the diversity of the population as a whole.

quota sampling

target sample is divided into sub groups. participants selected opportunistically from each subgroup to meet pre-determined quotas, ensuring representation of key characteristics.

observational sampling

a research method where participants are observed in their natural environment without interference, providing insights into their behaviors and interactions.

event sampling

where participants are observed by psychologists who record specific events each time they occur

where psychologist observe behaviour at specific time intervals

time sampling

independent groups design

where participant either takes part in control or experimental conditions

repeated measures

where participant takes part in both control and experimental conditions

matched pairs

a form of independent group design where the control and experimental group are similar

internal reliability

the extent to which a test or a measure is consistent within itself

accessing reliability

measures used to check the consistency of a set of results

inter rater reliability

where 2 or more psychologists produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure or correlations of their data

internal validity

the findings are accurate and effects of dv are caused by the iv

external validity

whether the study paints a true picture of real life behaviours

social desirability bias

when participants give responses they think will give them the best possible light

concurrent validity

validating a measurement by comparing it with an established measurement that has known validity

content validity

checks the method of measuring data is accurate and decides whether its a fair test that achieves the aims of the study

face validity

this is whether the test appears to measure what it intends to

standard deviation

A value which represents the amount of variation of results from the mean score.

Nominal data

the level of measurement that shows categories of data represented by frequencies. The data set has no numerical values

ordinal data

where data can be placed in ascending and descending order. The intervals between data not equal

interval data

has equal numerical intervals between scores

ratio

has equal intervals between scores and has a true zero point

chi-squared

statistical design- independent groups design, level of data nominal, when hypothesis is predicting a difference between 2 variables. The observed value must be higher than the critical value

mann whitney u

independent groups design- level of data is ordinal. Critical value higher than observed

sign test

experimental design- matched pairs, level of data nominal. Critical value must be higher. When there is a test of difference

spearmans rank

level of data ordinal and related. Observed value higher than critical. Test of correlation if observed value is higher than critical value we reject the alternative hypothesis and accept the null hypothesis

wilcoxon

experimental design is matched pairs, level of data ordinal. Critical value higher than observed.

describe the process of peer review

-researcher submits article to journal

-journal assessed by editor of journal

-if editor accepts article is sent to reviewers

-reviewer sends comment to editor

-editor may reject or send back to author to make revisions

-revised article is resubmitted

strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data

easier to analyse than qualitative data

quucker to collect

can be represented by graphical representation

doesnt provide insights on behaviour

can be manipulated easier

how to calculate standard deviation

calculate mean

take mean away from each data set

square each difference

add each squared difference

divide this by n-1

find the square root

strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal studies

reduces recall bias as participants are being researched as their life occurs

helps us understand the order in which events may occur

the same particpants are being researched which reduces particpant variables making it easy to establish cause and effect

risk of attrition

time consuming

participants are likely to be aware they are being researched which lowers validity

primary sources over secondary

primary may be ethical as researcher has control over how pps are recruited and can ensure BPS guidelines are used.

it is more time consuming. Cant examine historical trends

self selected sampling advantages/weakness

participants have consented and know what the study is about

likely to have engaged and motivated participants

where the researcher places their publicity can lead to bias which may not apply to wider population

demand characteristics: may try to act how they think the researchers want them t.

systematic sampling evaluation

unbiased as participants are selected using objective system

less time consuming

disadvantage: the nth person happen to be all similar

its not fully random which could lead to bias

snowball sampling evaluation

useful for accessing participants who are difficult to find

minimises work for researcher locating participants

not likely to be representative of all people because participants know someone else in the sample

researcher has lack of control over who is recruited

stratified sampling evaulation

more likely to produce a representative sample because the sample is proportional

reduces bias

time consuming

risk of over or under representations

literature review

survey all of the past research on a particular area in psychology. Brings together findings from multiple studies

quasi experiment evaluation

requires less work for the researcher as they wont have to manipulate IV and randomly allocate participants

more research options

because the researcher has not manipulated Iv there will a lack of control over extraneous variables

more chance bias because there is no randomisation

evaluation of participant observation

allows researcher to gain insights of behaviour and culture of a group

there is high ecological validity as they are being researched in their natural environment

there could be researcher bias because they are involved in the environment

dificult to replicate

evaluation of non participant observation

easier to observe other participants behaviours

reduces risk of influencing behaviour

may miss important context or deeper meanings behind behaviours

cannot ask participants questions

content analysis evaluation

it has high ecological validity

allows qualittaive data to be converted into quantitave dtat so data can be more easily compared

researcher has to define their own behaviour categories

if multiple researchers are doing content analysis it is possible they might interpret categories differently

structured questionnaire evaluaion

questions are pre set so researcher has planned appropriate questions

no danger that a confusing question is asked as they all have been proof read

crucial info may be missed if pre set questions fail to cover all areas

participants may not feel a connection with researcher

semi structured evaluation

most crucial questions will be asked and can ask follow up questions which allow for deeper responses. Can gain more detail for crucial areas

easier to build up trust with particpiant

time consuming to conduct

interviewers tone may influence participants answers

requires skillful interviewers to make up questions on the spot

correlation

allows to see if there are relationships between 2 quantitative co variables

correlations can be easily replicated

no cause and effect can be drawn between 2 co variables

ability to infer any valid conclusions based on correlations is limited

case studies

provide rich data on participants

provide a method to investigate rare human behaviours

difficult to generalise case study results

researcher bias

self report methods

participants can explain themselves which improves validity

less chance of researcher bias

data may be inaccurate due to social desirability

response bias

brain scans

different types of scans for different things

allow the activity of the living brain to be recorded

could be misinterpreted becuase technology is always changing

very costly

longitudinal research weakness

cross sectional studies evaluation

participants likely to be aware theire in a research lowering validity

time consuming

no risk of attrition as participants are studied once

quick and cost effective

cannot establish cause and effect

doesnt show how behaviour might change over the long period

field experiment evaluation

helps researcher to apply findings to real life

participants behave more naturally so increases ecological validity

reduces demand characteristics

weakness: impossible to replicate study

lack of control over extraneous variables

lab experiment evaluation

contain a high level of control over extraneous variables

replication is easy

artifical settng leads to low ecological validity

some lab studies involve stress and lack of informed consent

online research evaluation

advantages: access to more students, people may be more honest,

disadavantages: risk of consent and privacy issues

independent measures evaluation

No chance of fatigue or boredom as participants take part in only one condition

reduced demand characteristics

participant variables can become confounding variables. Can impact DV making it harder to conclude cause or effect

repeated measures evaluation

no partivipant variables making it easy to conclude cause and effect between IV and DV

there may be fatigue and boredom as participants have to take part in both conditions

matched pairs evaluation

reduces participant variables as groups are similar in characteristics

participants take part in one condition so there is reduced order effects

requires a large sample and is time consuming

mean evaluation

necessary for working out standard deviation

its a sensitive and accurate measure

affected by extreme scores and anomalus

not always represntative

mode

range

easiest to identify

not affected by extreme scores. Used for nominal data

may not exist

could be more than one mode

range is quick to calculate

effected by extreme scores and doesnt show how spread data is

median evaluation

not affected by extreme scores/anomalous results

easy to calculate and understand

not useful in small data sets

ignores most data

Bar chart

suitable for categories of data. Nominal

histogram

bar charts

line graph

scattergram

can be used for ratio and continuous data

suitable for frequency of data in categories

used for the value of something over time

used for correlations

bowlby methodology

method: case studies

methodology: opportunity sampling and matched pairs design

IV: whether they had stolen or not

DV: provisional diagnosis as to whether they had affectionless psychopathy

thieves group consisted of 31 boys 14 girls

over half were not convicted due to age of 11

seriousness of theft was graded from 1-4 4 being the worst

Iq scores: 50% had IQ of 85 to 114, 15 were high and 2 were below 85

control group had not stolen and were matched with thieve group based on age, sex

procedures

During hour 1, children were given mental tests to test emotional intelligence. Their emotional attitude was recorded by psychiatrist

social worker conducted unstructured interview on mother to gain preliminary psychiatric history on child

At the end of the hour reports were made by psychologist and social worker reported to psychiatrist

case conference was held and team came together to discuss school and other reports to form provisional diagnosis

this lasted six months as child was given psychotherapy while mother talked out problems

findings

bowlby created 6 categories for children: normal:2 depresed:9 circular:2 hyperthymic:13 affectionless:14 schizoid:4

out of 2/44 thieves classed as normal did not live normal lives at home due to hostile fathers

17/44 thieves experienced prolongued seperation from mother

of the 14 affectionless patients

12 expereinced prolongued seperation

5/27 cases of father hostility

specific case study findings conclusion

Betty I- placed in a foster care at 7 months. When parents split up she moved from one foster care to another. Then placed in a covert school

Derek B- at 18 months diagnosed with diptheria. Stayed for 9 months and was not visited by parents

Kennth W- cared for by grandfather from 3 to 9 years. Could not get control over him

This study supports the psychodynamic assumption that early years of childhood are important in development of child

Juvenile crime is not just a psychological problem but a social and economic one aswell

seperation of the mother with its child could lead to the hinderance of the super ego

threats to internal validity

independent groups design: participant variables may not be balanced on both conditions. This would effect the DV and cause and effect cannot be concluded between IV and DV

to overcome use matched pairs

threats to internal validity

confounding variables: means cause and effect cant be concluded between IV and DV

to overcome use standardised procedure which ensure all participants/conditions are equal

threats to internal validity

demand characteristics

researcher bias

to overcome use double blind technique where neither the participant or person who carries out research knows true aims of study

make sure participants answer truthfully

threats to external validity

population validity: cant be applied to the wider population

to overcome: using larger samples, using diverse samples

threats to external validity

ecological validity: how particpants amy respond in a lab environment

making sure to use a realistic setting

significance level

the probability that the results of a study occured by chance

how a case study would be carried out

• only one particpant used

• more than one method used

• in depth info is collected