EXAM 1 - BIO 207

★ Anatomy (ch 1)

Study of body structures.

★ Physiology

Study of how body structures function.

Levels of organization

Atoms → molecules → organelles → cells → organs → organ systems → organism.

★ Homeostasis

Maintaining a relatively stable internal environment.

★ Stimulus

A change in the internal or external environment.

★ Receptor

Detects a change.

★ Integrating center/control center

Interprets information and decides on a response.

★ Effector

Carries out the response.

Input signal

Carries information to the control center.

Output signal

Carries instructions from the control center to the effector.

★ Feedback loop pathway

Stimulus → receptor → input signal → integrating center → output signal → effector → response.

★ Negative feedback

Reverses or reduces the original change; maintains homeostasis.

Negative feedback example

Body temperature or blood glucose regulation.

★ Positive feedback

drives away from set point; may be part of bigger negative feedback loop

Positive feedback examples

Labor contractions and blood clotting.

★ Cell theory

Living things are made of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; cells come from existing cells.

★ Epithelial tissue

Covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

★ Connective tissue

Supports, protects, binds, stores, and transports.

★ Muscle tissue

Contracts to produce movement.

★ Nervous tissue

Sends and processes electrical signals.

★ Endocrine gland

Releases hormones into the blood.

★ Exocrine gland

Releases substances through ducts.

★ Proton (ch2)

Positively charged particle in the nucleus.

★ Neutron

Neutral particle in the nucleus.

★ Electron

Negatively charged particle that affects chemical behavior.

★ Valence electron

Outer electron involved in chemical bonding.

Isotope

Same element with a different number of neutrons.

★ Covalent bond

Electrons are shared.

★ Ionic bond

Electrons are transferred.

Hydrogen interaction

Weak attraction between partial charges.

★ Cation

Positively charged ion.

★ Anion

Negatively charged ion.

★ Polar covalent bond

Electrons are shared unequally.

Nonpolar covalent bond

Electrons are shared equally.

Hydrolysis

Uses water to break a molecule apart.

Dehydration synthesis

Removes water to join molecules together.

★ pH

Measures hydrogen ion concentration.

★ Acidic solution

High H⁺ concentration and low pH.

★ Basic solution

Low H⁺ concentration and high pH.

★ pH scale

Logarithmic scale; a one-unit change equals a 10-fold change in H⁺.

★ Buffer

Resists sudden changes in pH.

★ Bicarbonate buffer system

Uses bicarbonate, carbonic acid, water, carbon dioxide, and H⁺ to regulate pH.

★ Insulin

Hormone that allows cells to take up glucose.

★ Type I diabetes

The pancreas produces little or no insulin.

★ Type II diabetes

Cells resist insulin or the body does not produce enough.

★ Glycogen

Stored form of glucose.

★ Ketones

Acids produced during fat breakdown.

★ Diabetic ketoacidosis

Dangerous buildup of ketones that lowers blood pH.

★ Carbohydrates

Biomolecules mainly used for cellular energy.

Monosaccharide

One sugar unit.

Polysaccharide

Many sugar units joined together.

Glycogenesis

Formation of glycogen.

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen.

★ Lipids

Biomolecules used for energy storage, membranes, and hormones.

Triglyceride

Long-term energy storage lipid.

Phospholipid

Main structural component of the plasma membrane.

Steroid

Lipid involved in membrane fluidity and hormone production.

★ Protein

Molecule made of amino acids with many possible functions, acts as enzyme

Peptide bond

Bond joining amino acids.

Primary protein structure

Amino acid sequence.

Secondary protein structure

Alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary protein structure

Overall three-dimensional shape.

Quaternary protein structure

Multiple protein chains joined together.

★ Nucleic acid

Biomolecule made of nucleotides.

Nucleotide

Sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

DNA

Stores genetic information.

RNA

Helps make proteins.

ATP/GTP

Nucleotides used for cellular energy.

★ Nucleus (ch3)

Stores DNA and controls gene expression.

Nucleolus

Produces ribosomal components.

★ Ribosome

Builds proteins.

★ Rough ER

Makes and begins processing proteins.

Smooth ER

Makes lipids and helps detoxify substances.

★ Golgi apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

★ Mitochondrion

Produces ATP.

Lysosome

Digests and recycles materials.

Peroxisome

Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies substances.

Cytoskeleton

Supports cell shape and movement.

Centrosome

Organizes microtubules during cell division.

★ Protein pathway

DNA → mRNA → ribosome → rough ER → Golgi → vesicle → destination.

★ Plasma membrane

Selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer.

Hydrophilic head

Water-attracting phospholipid head.

Hydrophobic tail

Water-repelling phospholipid tail.

★ Exocytosis

Vesicle releases material outside the cell.

★ Endocytosis

Cell membrane brings material into the cell.

Pinocytosis

Endocytosis of extracellular fluid. “drinking”

★ Interphase

Cell growth, normal function, DNA replication, and preparation for division.

G₁ phase

Cell grows and performs normal functions.

★ S phase

DNA is replicated.

G₂ phase

Cell prepares for division.

★ Mitosis

Division of the nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei.

★ Prophase

Chromosomes condense and spindle forms.

★ Metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle.

★ Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate.

★ Telophase

New nuclei form.

★ Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells.

★ Reactant (ch4)

Starting substance in a chemical reaction.

★ Product

Substance formed by a chemical reaction.

★ Enzyme

Biological catalyst, usually a protein.

★ Catalyst

Speeds up a reaction by lowering activation energy.