Unit 2 - Cognition AP Psychology for midterm!!!

Perception

The process of organization and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, also known as the cocktail party effect.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Gestalt

An organized whole, emphasizing our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole.

Figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Similarity

The tendency to group similar figures together.

Closure

The process of filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Depth perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us to judge distance.

Visual cliff

A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

Binocular cues

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Monocular cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of one eye.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Phi Phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Semantic memory

Fact-based, Jeopardy-like information.

Procedural memory

How-to memory, such as tying shoes.

Episodic memory

Memories of certain episodes/events, like vacations or birthdays.

Prospective memory

Remembering not to forget to do something.

Explicit memory

Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Implicit memory

Procedural memory that you don’t have to think about; independent of conscious recollection.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Sensory memory

A quick, fleeting memory activated by the five senses.

Short-term/working memory

Activated memory that holds a few items for a brief time before storage or forgetting.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

Shallow processing

Encoding the shapes or surface structure of things, especially words.

Deep processing

Encoding according to semantics.

Semantic encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Self-referent processing

Encoding based on how something relates to you.

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that often use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic that helps people remember by placing items in a familiar place.

Hierarchies

A few broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

Acronym

A type of chunking where a word is formed from the first letters of remembered items.

Amnesia

The loss of memory.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to remember anything after specific brain surgery or an accident.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident.

Dementia

A loss of brain function affecting memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior.

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory focusing on conscious active processing of incoming information.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve previously learned information.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies previously learned items.

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory, often unconsciously.

Retrieval cues

Anchor points used to access information you want to remember later.

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Cognition

All of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concepts

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Hierarchies (Cognition)

Breaking things down from broad to specific.

Prototypes

A mental image of the best example of a category.

Algorithm

A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will solve a specific problem.

Heuristic

A general rule of thumb or shortcut used to reduce the number of possible solutions to a problem.

Insight

The moment of realizing the answer or solution.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual way.

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences.

Representative heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example.

Confirmation bias

A preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs.

Belief perseverance

Holding onto a belief even after it has been discredited.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Fluid intelligence

Intelligence including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing; declines with age.

Crystallized intelligence

Intelligence based on life experiences; increases with age.

Analytical intelligence

The ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare and contrast.

Creative intelligence

The ability to come up with new ideas and use divergent thinking.

Practical intelligence

The ability to deal with everyday life skills.

Multiple intelligences

Independent intelligences that go beyond traditional school smarts.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.

Intelligence tests

Tests devised to identify a person’s level of intelligence.

Mental age

The age at which someone is mentally, regardless of chronological age.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

The formula used to determine intelligence scores: Mental age / chronological age x 100.

Aptitude tests

Tests used to predict future performance, such as SATs and LSATs.

Achievement tests

Tests that measure what was learned, such as SOLs or AP exams.

Standardization

The process of establishing norms for a test based on a bell curve.

Split-half reliability

Looking at the degree of similarity between scores on two halves of a test.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When a person’s expectations of another lead that person to behave in an expected way.

Nature vs Nurture views of intelligence

Intelligence is based both on genetic and environmental factors.

Stereotype threat

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.