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Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It allows organisms to adapt to survive and respond effectively to their environments.

Conditioning: A basic form of learning where associations are made between events. There are two main types: classical and operant conditioning.

Stimuli: Environmental events or things that elicit responses or reactions.

Reinforcement: Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one to encourage a behavior.

Response: A reaction or behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus.

Antecedents: Events that happen before a behavior, setting the context for it.

Consequences: Events that follow a behavior and influence whether the behavior will occur again.

Types of Conditioning

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning: Learning by associating two stimuli together, so one predicts the other (e.g., Pavlov’s dog experiment).

Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of a behavior. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Involves associating a neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), so the neutral stimulus alone can elicit a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially doesn’t elicit a response (e.g., bell before it’s associated with food).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., meat powder).

Unconditioned Response (UR): An unlearned, natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to meat powder).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to the bell).

Acquisition: The process of developing a conditioned response. Reinforcement strengthens this connection.

Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response by removing the reinforcement.

Stimulus Generalization: When a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Informational View: People look for associations among events to form expectancies about future events.

Expectancies: Anticipated associations between events based on past experiences.

Conditioned Emotional Response: A learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., fear of dogs after a frightening incident).

Phobias: Irrational fears of specific objects or situations that are not based on real danger.

Evaluative Conditioning: Changing one’s attitude toward something by associating it with positive or negative stimuli (often seen in advertising).

Higher Order Conditioning: Using an established conditioned stimulus to condition a new neutral stimulus, extending learning further.

Vicarious Conditioning: Learning by observing the responses and consequences experienced by others.

Operant Conditioning (Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner)

Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of voluntary behavior.

Law of Effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur.

Types of Consequences:

Reinforcers: Increase behavior.

Punishers: Decrease behavior.

Reinforcers: Events that strengthen behavior. Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs, while secondary reinforcers are learned.

Punishers: Events that decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): A device used to study operant conditioning by providing reinforcement or punishment in controlled ways.

Response-Contingent Reinforcement: Reinforcement given only when a specific response is made.

Reinforcement Contingencies: Rules that determine whether a response will lead to reinforcement.

Primary vs. Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers:

Primary Reinforcers: Natural, satisfy biological needs.

Secondary Reinforcers: Learned, associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money).

Stimulus Control: The influence of stimuli that reliably predict reinforcement.

Operant Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

Operant Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to stimuli that signal a reward.

Shaping (Acquisition): Gradually reinforcing closer approximations of a desired behavior.

Successive Approximations: Steps that gradually lead to the desired behavior through reinforcement.

Response Chaining: Combining separate responses into a series of actions leading to reinforcement.

Extinction – Resistance to Extinction: When a learned behavior persists even without reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every correct response.

Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing only some responses, which can make the behavior more resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after a variable number of responses (most resistant to extinction).

Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a set time period.

Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after variable time intervals.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a reward to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Escape vs. Avoidance Learning:

Escape Learning: Ending an unpleasant stimulus by performing a behavior.

Avoidance Learning: Performing a behavior to prevent an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishments: Consequences that decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence.

Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus.

Taste Aversions: Strong dislikes for certain foods, often learned through bad experiences (evolutionary perspective).

Cognition & Conditioning

Latent Learning: Learning that becomes evident only when there’s motivation to demonstrate it.

Cognitive Map: An internal representation of an area or space, used for navigation.

Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves mental processes like problem-solving and understanding.

Rote Memory: Memorization through repetition.

Discovery Learning: Learning through exploration and understanding.

Learning Control of Self: The ability to regulate one’s own behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards.

Coping & Personal Control

Problem-Focused Coping: Directly addressing a problem to solve it.

Emotion-Focused Coping: Seeking comfort and support when facing emotional stress.

Internal Locus of Control: Belief that one has control over their life.

External Locus of Control: Belief that external forces dictate life outcomes.

Observational Learning & Modeling

Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.

Bobo the Clown Experiment: Bandura’s study showing how children mimic observed aggression.

Mirror Neurons: Brain cells that activate both when we perform and observe actions.

Prosocial vs. Antisocial Modeling:

Prosocial Modeling: Imitating positive, helpful behaviors.

Antisocial Modeling: Imitating harmful or destructive behaviors.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Conditioning

A basic form of learning where associations are made between events.

Stimuli

Environmental events or things that elicit responses or reactions.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Response

A reaction or behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus.

Antecedents

Events that happen before a behavior, setting the context for it.

Consequences

Events that follow a behavior and influence whether the behavior will occur again.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli together, so one predicts the other.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of a behavior.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially doesn't elicit a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned, natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that now elicits a response after conditioning.