Biology Chapter 19

What is the smallest infectious agent because it is made up of only a protein?

prions

What is the largest infectious agent?

multicellular parasites

Which infectious agent is larger: viruses, bacteria or fungi?

fungi

Review differences between animal eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Which has a nucleus? Membrane-bound organelles? One circular chromosome rather than many linear chromosomes?

Nucleus- eukaryotes

Membrane-bound organelles- eukaryotes

circular chromosome- prokaryotes

linear chromosomes- eukaryotes

What do animals cells lack on the outside of their cells that prokaryotic cells have and thus they make a good target for antibiotics?

cell wall

What type of cells (eukaryotic or prokaryotic) does each of the following have: bacteria, fungi, protozoa and multicellular parasites?

bacteria- prokaryotic

fungi- eukaryotic

protozoa- eukaryotic

multicellular parasites- eukaryotic

Are viruses living? What do we call them if we don’t call them cells?

no

“particles”

What two things are all viruses made up of? What is the third component that only some viruses have on the outside? (fyi: many animal viruses have this 3^rd component)

-dna OR rna

(protein coat)

SOME have envelopes

Do viruses spend most of their time outside or inside of cells? (are they intracellular or extracellular)

intracellular “parasites” (inside)

Explain what a prion is and why these infectious agents are so hard to treat.

prion- infectious proteins (can be misfolded) plasma membrane of nerve cells

-hard to treat due to the impossibility to treat proteins that are already destroyed, also 100% fatal

Name 3 functions of the lymphatic system.

1. Return extra fluid to the blood to maintain volume

2. Transport fats and some vitamins from digestive system

3. Defends body against infection

What are the characteristics of the 1^st and 2^nd lines of defense? Contrast this to the 3^rd line.

1st- nonspecific barriers to entry

2nd- nonspecific defenses, not barriers

3rd- specific (immune defenses)

Are the first and second lines of defense fast in their response? Are they specific or nonspecific in recognition?

yes, quick response and same response each time

nonspecific recognition of antigen

Name some physical barriers of defense in the first line? Explain the microbiome.

physical barriers- ear wax, hair, sneezing, urinating, vomiting, crying, and skin

microbiome- physical barrier-takes ups residents

Name some chemical barriers in the first line of defense. What is lysozyme?

chemical barriers- lysosome, pH (vaginal tract, skin, stomach)

lysozyme- enzyme that kills bacteria

Explain 2 genetic barriers of defense. Are they a first, second or third line of defense?

HIV- lack of a membrane protein for the virus to enter cells and reproduce

Malaria- stickle cell disease/anemia

-first line of defense

Name two phagocytes (phagocytic cells) in the second line of defense. What is phagocytosis?

neutrophils- move out when damage/infection

macrophages- act as guards- engulf as needed

phagocytosis is cell eating

What two cells are important in producing histamine in the inflammatory response?

-basophils

-mast cells

What two things happen as a result of histamine release (we discussed this in chapter 7 as well)?

-Histamine is dumped into the blood, results in blood cells dilating, which increases blood flow to the area

-Also causes leaky mess to increase

What are complement proteins? What infectious agent do they work best against?

-25-30 plasma proteins

-form MACS

-found in blood and liver

work best against bacteria

What is a MAC?

membranes attack complexes

Explain what interferons are. What infectious agent do they work best against?

interferon- proteins are made by virally infected cells to alert neighboring healthy cells

work best against viruses

What type of white blood cell is a natural killer cell? How do they function?

-white blood cell (lymphocytes)

function by detecting changes in normal cell proteins, NK cell will destroy cells that display changes

How can a fever be advantageous in getting rid of infectious agents?

-increase metabolic rate of cells

-pyrogens are released

-inhospitable to some pathogens

Describe generally the way B and T cells work. Are they specific or nonspecific? What does it mean to be specific in recognition?

-work by defending your body

B: recognize antigens that are intact and still on the infectious agent

T: recognize processed/chopped up antigens (directly interact or kill other cells)

In what form does a T cell recognize an antigen compared to a B cell?

T- processed antigen

B- unprocessed/intact antigen

After an immune response with B and T cells, what type of cells are left behind for each of these cells types that are the basis for the secondary immune response and thus our long term immunity to that same infectious agent?

memory cell

What specific B cells make antibodies?

antibodies (plasma and memory cells)

Name 4 things that antibodies can do to help stop or eliminate an infectious agent.

-cause clumping

-attract phagocytes

-activate complement

-neutralize the antigen

Describe the primary and secondary immune responses. Which is faster? Longer lasting? A stronger response?

-primary- first time seeing something, slow, weak, short lived

-secondary- response is larger and faster, stronger, long lasting

What cells result from a primary immune response that gives us immunity in the secondary immune response?

memory cells

Give two examples of passive immunity. Give two examples that would result in active immunity. Which is a vaccine considered?

passive- maternal antibodies, injection of antibodies

active- vaccinations, infection

What is a vaccine?

injection of antigens

What is the purpose of a vaccine?

to make memory cells in body to prevent infection

Do vaccines decrease the incidence of disease?

yes

What is herd immunity and how does it help unvaccinated individuals?

-most of the population has prevention (vaccination) from a disease

-helps due to lowering risk of spread

Why might someone choose to not be vaccinated or not vaccinate their child?

-think that it causes autism

-still a chance of getting sick

What is an autoimmune disease?

when your immune system attacks your own cells

What infectious agent are antibiotics meant to be used for?

bacteria

What would be a good structure on a bacterial cell to make antibiotics against because our animal eukaryotic cells lack this structure>?

cell wall

Explain some things that humans do that contribute to the rise in antibiotic resistance. What can you or we do to stop this increase?

stop increase:

-take medication on time

-finish all of medication

-don’t eat processed meat

-determine if you truly need antibiotics

Why is it a poor practice to feed antibiotics to our food animals such as chickens and cows?

antibiotics can get into the consumer’s system and cause resistance

What are some functions of the respiratory system? Trace the pathway of air through this system.

functions: smell, vocal sound and quality, filter warm and moisten air, exchange of gasses (O2 and CO2)

pathway of air: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

Where specifically are gases exchanged in the respiratory system in the lungs? What are these structures covered in that allows the exchange into the rest of the body?

exchanged in the alveoli (groups of air sacs covered by capillaries)

What do alveoli and capillaries structurally have in common? (what are they made of and how thick are the cell layers)

single layer of epithelial cells

What molecule is found in red blood cells that carries most of the oxygen around the body?

hemoglobin

What does oxygen bind to on hemoglobin molecules? Be specific.

4 iron atoms

What are the conditions in the lungs (3) that allow efficient oxygen binding? What are the conditions in the body tissues that allows for oxygen to be released where it is needed in active tissues. Explain why active body cells/tissues would have a lower pH.

high O2 levels, higher pH, cooler temperatures

-warmer tissues have higher temperatures, causing pH to decrease and lower O2 levels

Where is most carbon dioxide (in a changed form) carried in the blood back to the lungs to be exhaled?

blood plasma

What is emphysema and what can cause it?

decreased surface area when alveoli breaks down in the lungs, difficult for gas exchange

-caused by airborne irritant exposure (smoking, pollutants, etc.)

How many major types of influenza viruses are there?

3 (A, B, C) Type A is most common

We need yearly vaccinations for influenza. Explain why using the concept of antigenic drift.

yearly vaccine, small scale changes in surface proteins (spikes)

-causes your body to respond newly each time it is seen

What is antigenic shift as it relates to the influenza virus and why it is worrisome to humans?

large scale changes in surface proteins as a result of mixing more than one flu virus

-can become a pandemic

-unseen proteins

-higher mortality

What type of infectious agent results in the flu? The cold?

airborne viruses

Why is it hard to make a vaccination against the common cold?

over 200 viruses

Describe what covid-19 is using type of infectious agent, how it is spread, some common symptoms

spread from contact or airborne, virus, symptoms are basically everything

How many people had died of covid-19 in the US? What is the current vaccination rate in Ohio, the US or the world?

almost 1.2 million in us

ohio- 66%

us-95%

world- 72%

Do tobacco products result in just a couple of types of cancers, one type or many types?

many

What percent of people with lung cancer are current or former smokers?

90%

On average how many years of life do smokers lose compared to nonsmokers?

10 years

What is secondhand smoke? Thirdhand smoke? Are either thought to be harmful?

2nd- exposed to smoke from a smoker

3rd- smoke is left over an inanimate object

both are harmful

What might be a new threat?

3rd handsmoke

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

-central

-peripheral

There are three major types of neurons of the nervous system. Which is most numerous (hint: they reside in the CNS)? Which carries information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system?

1. sensory neurons (to brain) from pns to cos

2. interneurons (within brain or spinal cord) carries info within the ins

3. motor neurons (from brain) from cns to pns

Which carries information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system to organs, glands etc…and which carries information within the central nervous system?

-sensory neurons

-motor neurons

-interneurons

Name an important function of some glial/neuroglial cells and how they interact with axons on neurons. (think white and wrapping around)

glial cells wrap around the axon of a neuron and create a myelin sheath that allows for better conduction

Review the structure of a neuron and direction of information flow: cell body, dendrite and axon (chapter 4)

…

Why is the myelin sheath important? What are the nodes of Ranvier and what is saltatory conduction? What does this type of conduction do to the rate of a nerve impulse along an axon?

nerve impulses travel more quickly on a myelinated sheath than an un-myelinated sheath

-nodes of ranvier- spaces between myelination

-saltatory conduction- nerve impulses jump from node to node (speeds up)

Explain the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis.

myelination is damaged, nerve impulse transmission is affected, progressive disease (myelin sheath is attacked by own immune system)

What is the job of a neurotransmitter and what is a synaptic gap/synapse?

-chemical means of communication between neurons

-gap between neurons and any cell communicating

Explain how the following protect and/or support the central nervous system: bones, meninges, blood-brain barrier and cerebrospinal fluid.

• Bones- Bony cases (skull and vertebrae)
• Meninges (3) - membranes that cover the central nervous system
• Blood-brain barrier - capillaries in the brain are very tightly bound. They're even more tightly bound in the brain. Act as a barrier from things crossing into the CNS. Only certain drugs can get through this barrier.
• Cerebrospinal fluid - Fluid that completely incases the CNS, the spinal cord and brain. Insulated fluid layer that coats your entire CNS, that way it doesn't bang around.

Where is white and gray matter located in the brain? Spinal cord? (Inside or outside)

White- inside (where axon/myelination is)

Gray- outside (where cell bodies of neurons are)

spinal cord- opposite!

Is white matter completely developed very early in life or what did you learn from the article white matter matters?

no- white matter isn’t fully developed until early 20s, timing and growth and degree of completion can affect many things

What resides in the gray matter and what is the general function of the white matter based on what structures are found there.

gray matter: neural cell bodies, axon terminals, dendrites, all nerve synapses.

white matter: helps body process information, connects regions that send and receive signals

Name the 4 major regions of the brain as discussed in the powerpoint and their alternate names such as the primitive and emotional brain etc… Name a general function of each. 

1. brain stem (primitive brain) first part developed, coordination, reflex, muscle control

2. cerebellum (little/hind brain) long term learned behaviors

3. limbic system (emotional brain) hunger, thirst, sex drive, anger, “blue area”

4. cerebrum (83% of weight) highest conscious thoughts, grey on outside, white under, language and speech, higher levels of learning

In which lobe of the cerebrum does conscious thought and decision making occur? 

frontal lobe

What is meningitis? Shingles? Many nervous system diseases result because of a lack of enough neurotransmitter, be able to recognize a few.

meningitis- an infection of the meninges

shingles- secondary disease you can get if you have had chicken pox. the herpes virus will then live in your CNS for the rest of your life.

diseases: Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, depression and anxiety, add/adhd, VCJD

Is the microbiome important to our over health including the nervous system? Does diversity of the gut microbiome appear to be important?

yes, a happy microbiome is a diverse microbiome. vital link of the microbiome in the large intestine and the brain, when the microbiome is implicated, diseases such as dementia, anxiety, autism, and other can have a role.

What are the 5 main tastes found on the tongue?

umami

salty

bitter

sweet

sour

What would happen if you dried your tongue and place some sugar on the tip? Why?

you wouldn’t be able to taste it (you need saliva)

Follow the pathway of light through the eye as it is made into an image.

cornea, pupil/iris, lens, retina, fovea, optic nerve

What two photoreceptor cells are found in the retina and what do each do?

rods- help with peripheral vision

cones- see more objects in center

What is the problem is someone that is nearsighted? Farsighted?

nearsighted- eyeball is slightly longer, imagine focuses in front of retina, lens stiffens, hard to see nearby

farsighted- eyeball is slightly shorter, imagine focuses behind retina, less common

Explain what the eye demonstration of the plus and circle demonstrates.

blind spots- retina has a break with no rods and cones

What is the most common colorblindness and what causes it? Is it more common in men or women, why?

red/green colorblindness (x-linked) more common in men because of X chromosome

Follow the pathway of sound through the ear.

pinna (ear), auditory/ear canal, tympanic membrane (eardrum), 3 middle ear bones (auditory bones), cochlea (w/ hair cells that bend), auditory nerve

What is the main function of the middle ear (think middle ear bones)? Inner ear as it relates to hearing (think cochlea)?

middle ear- hearing (pressure)

inner ear- fluid and hairs that create sound (electrical impulses)

What is the function of the 3 semicircular canals/vestibular apparatus in the ear?

balance

What organ is needed most often for donation?

kidneys

Be able to recognize the parts of the urinary system.

2 kidneys- make urine, maintain salt balance, blood pH, blood pressure, regulate red blood cell production, activate vitamin D

2 ureters- carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder

1 bladder- store urine

1 urethra- tube that carries urine from bladder to outside of the body

What is a UTI? Do males or females get them more often and why?

UTI- caused by E. coli bacteria from the anal region

more common in females due to the shorter distance in the urethra, easy to spread into the bladder

Why is sexual reproduction important for the long term survival of many species? Watch the short video.

increases the genetic make up of individuals and this is very important for the long term survival of a species.

Name the functions of the following: testes, epididymis, vas deferens and the urethra in reproduction.

testes- where sperm are made, hormones such as testosterone are made here

epididymis- coiled tube adjacent to the testes where sperm are matured and stores

vas deferens- tube that carries sperm and picks up materials from glands to contribute to semen production

urethra- tube where semen/sperm leave body (found in the penis)

List the path of the sperm and know that there are 3 glands that contribute to semen production (2 are pairs of glands and one is a single gland but you do not need to know their names).

testes, stores in epididymis (20 days), vas deferent, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, semen enters urethra, leaves body

Name the structures of the female reproductive system.

2 ovaries- makes eggs, produces estrogen (hormones)

2 fallopian tubes- carries the eggs, where fertilization occurs

1 uterus- where implantation occurs

1 cervix- lower part of the uterus, where cells are taken from in a Pap smear to look for disease and health of uterus

1 vaginal birth canal

Where does fertilization take place? Implantation?

fertilization- fallopian tubes

implantation- uterus

What is ovulation?

release of egg from ovary

Name the three major types of birth control methods. Which one(s) aid in preventing sexually transmitted infections/diseases?

1. abstinence

2. barrier

3. hormonal

What causes chlamydia and gonorrhea? What are the symptoms? Can they be treated with antibiotics? Do they always cause symptoms? What can be a long term consequence of either of these infections?

chlamydia- bacteria (1-3 weeks) burning during urination, discharge, can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, cured with antibiotics

gonorrhea- bacteria (2-6 days) burning during urination, discharge, can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, cured with antibiotics

What is pelvic inflammatory disease? What can cause it? What is an ectopic pregnancy?

infection of one or more of the upper reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries)

cause: when chlamydia or gonorrhea (certain bacteria) move upwards into reproductive organs

ectopic pregnancy: when a fertilized egg implants and grows outside of the main cavity of the uterus