OCR A-Level RS Ethics Utilitarianism

What type of theory is Bentham's utilitarianism?

Teleological - purpose focused.

How does Bentham's utilitarianism measure usefulness?

Based on assessing end result.

What are the three main parts of Bentham's utilitarianism??

- What motivates humans to do good/bad.

- Utility principle/What is good for majority.

- Hedonic Calculus, measure of good/bad of consequence.

What is Bentham's utilitarianism quote on the utility principle?

"It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people which is the measure of right and wrong".

What are some questions about Bentham's view on the utility principle?

What about the action - do bad actions justify good results?

Could it lead to bad things which people think are good if they are persuaded?

Is what is 'useful' or 'good' too subjective?

Is some suffering worse than others?

What did Bentham argue that actions should be measured based on?

Happiness or pleasure produced.

What did Bentham say motivates us and is the driver of life?

Pleasure/pain - they are our 'masters'. Our 'driver' is the pursuit of happiness.

What is hedonism?

The ethical theory that pleasure - satisfying desires - is the highest good and aim of human life.

What is Bentham's quote on supposed altruism and what does it mean?

"In words, a man may pretend to abjure their empire" - We pretend to be above/be unaffected by (abjure), but remain subject to our pleasures. Even charitable actions are done for an inner pleasure, e.g. the pleasure of giving/helping.

How does Bentham's ethical theory link to the community?

We should consider the community as a whole rather than individuals alone when making decisions, including the sum of community interests.

What is the Hedonic Calculus?

Used to calculate the pleasure/pain of a situation's outcome and apply the principle of utility.

What are the seven parameters of the Hedonic Calculus?

Intensity

Duration

Certainty

Fecundity (Continuous or repetitiveness of pleasure/pain)

Propinquity (How near/remote is pleasure/pain)

Purity (Likelihood of pleasure/pain leading to the opposite)

Extent.

What are key issues with the Hedonic Calculus?

It is not numerical and difficult to measure - trying to quantify the qualitative. Too subjective in how it can be considered, and may be impractical to apply in all situations due to considerations.

Why may the hedonic calculus be problematic in complex situations?

Oversimplifies everything to pleasure/pain - we are emotional, complex beings with much more than that. Plus, not all pleasure/pain is the same.

What is an issue with propinquity when contextually applying the trolley problem?

If 5 good strangers and 1 best friend are on the tracks, propinquity (remoteness of pleasure/pain) may let you kill the 5; our emotions and views can skew the morality of situations.

Although you are supposed to consider community as whole and act as an observer, the hedonic calculus may actually hinder in this aspect, making situations more complex and easier for emotional responses of us being humans to override.

Describe J.S. Mill's utilitarianism.

Influenced by Bentham, while recognising issues with him - if the greatest good is quantitative, some people's good would arguably be overlooked if majority agree. Ignoring the minority seems to lower us to animals - Mill wanted to solve this issue.

What are higher pleasures according to Mill?

Qualitatively better pleasures including those of the mind and those which are virtuous and long-term.

What are lower pleasures according to Mill?

Quantitatively greater pleasures - we are dissatisfied with higher pleasures even if we recognise them, as quantity is sacrificed. Lower pleasures of the body may feel better quantitatively even if not.

What pleasures do Mill say should be preferred in choices and why?

Higher pleasures - we should prefer these even if quantity of pleasure is sacrificed, as the quality is greater; the mind should be preferred over the body in this sense. (Platonic reference?)

What was Mill's quote on satisfaction?

"It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, it is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

What does Mill believe around temptation?

We are tempted to bodily pleasure, recognising that higher pleasures are better but lacking character to ignore bodily pleasures.

What was Mill concerned about in terms of pleasure?

Sinking into a state where higher pleasures are unrecognised.

What did Mill say about life's aim?

To be far from pain and rich in enjoyments, both qualitative and quantitative. These provide a benchmark of morality.

What is Mill's principle of universalisability?

Happiness is desirable and the only thing desirable as an end, thus all should aim for everyone's happiness as increasing general happiness increases your own.

Would only work if everyone's idea of happiness is the same.

What did Mill say about the consequence of pursuing lower pleasures?

Lower pleasures gratify more but bring greater pain.

How did Mill feel about the hedonic calculus and Bentham's theories?

Did not oppose the axes of the calculus, rather the source of pleasure and pain and their types.

What did Mill feel about altruism in relation to ourselves?

We should recognise our own happiness and interests in an altruistic way, renouncing lower for higher pleasures.

What was Mill's idea for pleasure in culture/art?

The great and wise could agree on the greatest pleasure in culture and art - many saw this view as elitist.

What is act utilitarianism?

Application of the theory to individual acts/situations with morality judged by the greatest good it produces for the greatest number.

How is the principle of utility applied in act utilitarianism?

To individual situations based on consequences.

How are decisions reached in act utilitarianism?

By considering the axes of the hedonic calculus in every situation based on pleasure versus pain.

How may act utilitarianism cause us to do something generally believed to be wrong?

Something like murder or gang rape may be permissible if calculus applied and nothing else taken into consideration other than 'pleasure' and 'pain'.

What is rule utilitarianism?

Measures consequence of an act repeated as a rule for similar circumstances. Relies on greatest happiness based on general rules, like murder being wrong.

How are rules judged in rule utilitarisnims?

A general rule is judged based on the greatest good it produces.

What does rule utilitarianism focus on?

Rules formed by using utilitarianism to benefit society. Actions are considered good or bad based on consequences of a rule which everyone should follow in similar situations.

What is the long term consequence of considering the moral outcome?

Reduces complexity and subjectivity with general principles.

What are the two types of rule in rule utilitarianism?

Strong rules - Can never be disobeyed.

Weak rules - Should be generally followed but may not be followed indefinitely or if circumstances exceptional.

What if following a rule in rule utilitarianism does not lead to the greatest happiness for yourself?

You should follow it for the overall goodness of society.

What are strengths of act utilitarianism?

- Individual to situations, does not generalise.

- Treats all conscious people capable of experiencing pleasure/pain as equally important when making moral choice.

What are weaknesses of rule utilitarianism?

- Places preservation of rules above individual needs.

- We can't be certain that following a general rule will always lead to the greatest pleasure as examination is not individual.

- Does not always protect minority group if rule is for majority.

What are strengths of rule utilitarianism?

- We need general rules for meaningful moral theory. Always following a rule can often lead to best result.

- Moral conduct is more straightforward as you do not need to calculate pleasure vs pain every time.

- Protects against immoral acts like gang rape.

What are weaknesses of act utilitarianism?

- Justified tyranny of majority.

- Too subjective and complicated/time-consuming to calculate.

- Doesn't clearly distinguish types of pleasure.

- Act can be made right or wrong by facts other than good or evil like lying or betrayal.

- Doesn't protect minorities.

Why is utilitarianism strong from the basis of teleology?

Links morality to pursuit of happiness, protecting against individual pursuits. Offers a balanced, consequence-focused democratic morality that works for societal organisation.

Why is utilitarianism weak from the basis of teleology?

Only focuses on consequence - what about deontology? You can't always be certain about consequences as some actions have unforeseen, unpredictable impacts that may not be apparent for a long time.

Why is utilitarianism strong from the basis of justice vs happiness?

Ensures maximum pleasure. Not really many positives here lol.

Why is utilitarianism weak from the basis of justice vs happiness?

May lead to horrific acts due to tyranny of majority. Some individuals could be used for majority's good i.e. a minority 'slave class'. Alasdair Macintyre - Justified Nazis.

'swine ethics'.

Why is utilitarianism strong from the basis of higher/lower pleasures?

It provides a solution to issues of Bentham's original theory and rules out some situations that may be unjust with tyranny of majority.

Why is utilitarianism weak from the basis of higher/lower pleasures?

Higher/lower pleasures are still subjective overall - Mill's view on what constitutes them may be somewhat elitist and not universally held.

Still ends up ignoring intentions of actions - a good consequence of bad intention could occur.

What is one major criticism of utilitarianism that is not considered?

What about intentions within morality? What if there is a good consequence but bad intention?

Why is utilitarianism weak from the basis of questions around pleasure and pain?

Measuring pleasure is not straightforward and is subjective.

Plus, pain can be good and necessary in some cases.It is natural and emotional - avoiding it means avoiding humanity.

It assumes a common agreement around causes of pain/pleasure and ignores spiritual aspects.

Why is utilitarianism strong from the point of rationality/type of theory?

It is individualistic, rational and practical which fits a world of competing religions.

A basis of 'happiness' being the good and the goal is reasonable.

It is not a conceptual or esoteric theory, more pragmatic.

Weighing interests = fairer than absolutist legalism.

Why is utilitarianism weak from the point of its type of theory?

It is reliant on guesses and predictions without looking at actions or intentions - this is a totally unreliable ethical theory.

It is less able to deal with human rights or equality as it will always go against the minority's opinion. Factors like equality, rights and justice are not easily considered.

What is the principle of utility in utilitarianism?

It seeks the greatest balance of good over evil, or pleasure over pain.

How does utilitarianism differ from deontological ethics?

Utilitarianism is a teleological theory that focuses on the consequences of actions to determine their morality, while deontological ethics is based on moral rules.

Who is considered the father of classical utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham

How did Bentham define utility?

As the property of an object that tends to produce benefit, pleasure, or happiness, or to prevent mischief, pain, or unhappiness.

What is the formula for happiness according to Bentham?

Happiness = pleasure minus pain.

What is the hedonic calculus?

It is Bentham's method for measuring the benefits or harms of an action through its consequences.

What are the seven elements of Bentham's hedonic calculus?

Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Remoteness, Fecundity, Purity, and Extent.

How does Bentham's theory apply to moral calculations involving animals?

Bentham argues that any being capable of suffering should be included in moral considerations, not just rational agents.

What criticism is made about the predictability of outcomes in utilitarianism?

Many moral decisions do not have predictable or measurable outcomes, making it difficult to judge actions based solely on their consequences.

What is a key criticism regarding the calculability of pleasure and pain in utilitarianism?

It is impossible to accurately add up all the pain and pleasure resulting from a course of action due to too many variables.

What fundamental flaw is associated with measuring pleasure and pain in utilitarianism?

Pleasure cannot be measured accurately, making it difficult to apply the hedonic calculus effectively.

What does John Stuart Mill contribute to utilitarianism?

Mill agrees with Bentham on the utility principle but modifies it by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures.

What is Mill's definition of happiness in utilitarianism?

Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain, while unhappiness is pain and the privation of pleasure.

What ethical issue is used to illustrate the application of Bentham's hedonic calculus?

The ethical issue of abortion, particularly in the context of a 15-year-old girl facing an unwanted pregnancy.

What does the term 'intensity' refer to in Bentham's hedonic calculus?

The strength of the pleasure or pain resulting from an action.

What does 'duration' refer to in the context of the hedonic calculus?

The length of time that the pleasure or pain will last.

What is meant by 'certainty' in the hedonic calculus?

The likelihood that the pleasure or pain will occur as a result of the action.

What does 'remoteness' indicate in Bentham's calculus?

The proximity in time of the pleasure or pain resulting from the action.

What does 'fecundity' refer to in the hedonic calculus?

The potential for the action to produce further pleasures or pains in the future.

What is the significance of 'purity' in Bentham's hedonic calculus?

It assesses whether the pleasure is likely to be followed by pain or vice versa.

What does 'extent' refer to in the context of the hedonic calculus?

The number of people affected by the pleasure or pain resulting from the action.

What is Bentham's view on pleasures?

Bentham saw all pleasures as equal, regardless of their source.

How does Mill's view on pleasures differ from Bentham's?

Mill differentiates between higher and lower pleasures, asserting that some are more desirable and valuable.

What does Mill mean by 'higher pleasures'?

Higher pleasures include philosophical insight, educational development, self-improvement, empathy, and other long-term, progressive experiences.

What are examples of 'lower pleasures' according to Mill?

Lower pleasures include eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse, which are fleeting and do not contribute to personal progress.

What analogy does Mill use to illustrate his point about higher and lower pleasures?

Mill compares the satisfaction of a human being to that of a pig, stating it is better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig.

What is Mill's stance on the quality of pleasures?

Mill argues that quality should be considered alongside quantity when evaluating pleasures.

How does Mill address the objection regarding the preference for higher pleasures?

Mill suggests that those with experience of both types of pleasure generally prefer higher pleasures, relying on a consensus of human experience.

What criticism is often directed at Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures?

Critics argue that Mill's distinction complicates utilitarianism, which is valued for its simplicity and practicality.

What is a potential issue with measuring higher and lower pleasures?

It is difficult to compare different types of pleasures, such as the enjoyment of music versus physical activities.

What is the role of rule utilitarianism in Mill's theory?

Rule utilitarianism seeks principles that generally lead to happiness, even if they sometimes conflict with act utilitarianism.

How does Mill's theory apply to the issue of abortion?

Mill would consider the quality of life and potential for higher pleasures when evaluating the decision to abort a fetus with disabilities.

What is act utilitarianism?

Act utilitarianism calculates the consequences of each situation individually, rather than following general rules.

What is a criticism of utilitarianism regarding moral decisions?

Utilitarianism oversimplifies moral decisions by reducing them to calculations of pleasure and pain.

What challenge does utilitarianism face in predicting future outcomes?

Utilitarianism requires predictions about how choices will affect people's interests, which is often uncertain.

What does Alasdair MacIntyre argue about happiness?

MacIntyre suggests that being content with one's lot does not mean that it is the right or just situation.

How does Mill's view of pleasure relate to human progress?

Mill believes that higher pleasures contribute to human progress and personal development.

What does Mill mean by 'the absence of high feelings'?

He criticizes those who only pursue lower pleasures, suggesting they lack deeper emotional and intellectual engagement.

What is the significance of Mill's quote about Socrates and the pig?

It illustrates the idea that intellectual and moral dissatisfaction is preferable to mere sensory pleasure.

What is a common objection to Mill's elitism in pleasure classification?

Critics argue that Mill favors intellectual pleasures over sensual ones, which may not reflect everyone's values.

Who is primarily associated with Act Utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham

What is the primary rule of Act Utilitarianism?

To seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number in all situations.

How does Act Utilitarianism view moral rules?

It allows for moral rules to change based on individual situations rather than adhering to fixed rules.

What example illustrates Act Utilitarianism in practice?

A paramedic treating a pregnant woman first in a road traffic accident due to her greater potential for future happiness.

What is a criticism of Act Utilitarianism regarding moral rules?

It lacks general rules, making it difficult to form a meaningful moral theory.

What dilemma illustrates a potential flaw in Act Utilitarianism?

Choosing between two acts that produce the same happiness, where one involves breaking a promise.

How does Act Utilitarianism treat obligations to individuals?

It treats all conscious beings equally, which can conflict with our moral intuitions about familial obligations.

What is a moral intuition challenge for Act Utilitarianism?

It may suggest executing an innocent person if it leads to greater overall happiness, which feels unjust.