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What is the overall chemical equation of cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical Energy (in ATP)
What are the products of cellular respiration?
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
What are the reactants of cellular respiration?
glucose and oxygen
What is the energy currency of a cell?
ATP
What is the high-energy form of a cell?
ATP is higher than ADP
What is the low-energy form of a cell?
ADP is higher than ATP
Why do you breathe so hard when you exercise?
your body needs more oxygen to fuel your working muscles
What are the 3 major steps we studied in cellular respiration?
glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle), and the electron transport chain
During which step of cellular respiration is the majority of ATP produced?
during the electron transport chain step
Where does glycolysis occur in the body?
the cytoplasm
Which molecule is initially broken down in the process of glycolysis?
glucose
Describe the two general phases of glycolysis
the investment phase (also called the priming phase) where energy is used in the form of ATP to prepare the glucose molecule,
and the payoff phase (also called the yield phase) where energy is released in the form of ATP and NADH by breaking down the modified glucose molecule into pyruvate
Which molecule is the end product of the glycolysis reactions (which will be processed and enter the citric acid cycle)?
acetyl CoA
Which two energy-carrying molecules are produced during glycolysis?
ATP and NADH
What is the function of NADH and FADH2?
high-energy electron carriers in the process of cellular respiration
What is NADH and FADH2?
FADH2, is a redox cofactor that is created during the Krebs cycle and utilized during the last part of respiration, the electron transport chain.
NADH, is a similar compound used more actively in the electron transport chain as well.
In which steps of cellular respiration are NADH and FADH2 produced?
citric acid cycle
Name the 3 important molecules we gain from the Citric Acid cycle
NADH, FADH2, and GTP
Where does the Citric Acid cycle occur in the body?
mitochondria
How many molecules of ATP are made in the Citric Acid cycle, per glucose molecule?
two
What happens when an electron moves closer to the nucleus of an atom?
its potential energy decreases
Where, inside the cell, is the electron transport chain?
inner mitochondrial membrane
What happens at the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells?
the electron transport chain operates
What happens during the electron transport chain system regarding hydrogen ions?
hydrogen ions (H+) are actively pumped across the mitochondrial membrane, from the matrix to the intermembrane space
What happens during the electron transport chain system regarding electron movement?
electrons are passed from one molecule to another through a series of protein complexes embedded in a membrane, gradually losing energy as they move
What happens during the electron transport chain system regarding the creation of a chemical gradient?
electrons are passed from one molecule to another, and energy released in these electron transfers is used to form an electrochemical gradient
What happens during the electron transport chain system regarding diffusion?
accumulates hydrogen ions in the mitochondria matrix to form an electrochemical gradient
What happens during the electron transport chain system regarding ATP synthase?
The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase
How is ATP produced during the electron transport chain system?
oxidative phosphorylation
What is oxidative phosphorylation?
a metabolic process that occurs within the mitochondria of cells, where energy from the oxidation of nutrients is used to generate ATP by transferring electrons through an electron transport chain and creating a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane
What is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport system?
oxygen
During Anaerobic cellular respiration, which of the three steps is performed?
glycolysis
What are the three steps of Anaerobic cellular respiration?
glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate (transition step), and fermentation
During Anaerobic cellular respiration, which of the three steps aren't performed?
oxidation of pyruvate and fermentation
What is the waste product created during anaerobic respiration in muscle cells?
lactic acid
What is the waste product created during anaerobic respiration in yeast?
ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide
Define tissue
a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function
Why are tissues necessary in multicellular animals?
they enable the organism to function at a higher level of complexity than if all cells were identical and performed all tasks alone
Name 3 general places that epithelial tissue is found in the human body
The outer layer of your skin (epidermis). The lining of your intestines. The lining of your respiratory tract.
Why is epithelial tissue often very smooth?
its cells are tightly packed together with minimal intercellular space
What non-cellular layer anchors epithelial tissue to connective tissue?
basement membrane
What is epithelial tissue naming based on? (2 things)
the number of cell layers present (simple, stratified, or pseudostratified) and the shape of the cells (squamous, cuboidal, or columnar)
What common function do most simple epithelia perform?
absorption and secretion
How does the anatomy of simple epithelia fit the function performed?
form a membrane that allows selective diffusion of materials to pass through
What common function do many stratified epithelia perform?
protection
How does the anatomy of stratified epithelia fit the function performed?
providing a thick barrier that can withstand abrasion and physical stress
Whether simple or stratified, what is a common function of columnar tissue?
absorption and secretion
Name the 4 types of fibrous connective tissue
tendons, ligaments, fascia, and the dermis layer of the skin
describe the extracellular matrix of tendons and how its composition varies regarding 3 different types of fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers)
primarily composed of densely packed type I collagen fibers, which contribute the majority of the tissue's tensile strength, with a minimal presence of elastic fibers and very few reticular fibers
describe the extracellular matrix of ligaments and how its composition varies regarding 3 different types of fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers)
primarily composed of densely packed collagen fibers, providing high tensile strength, with a smaller amount of elastic fibers to allow for some flexibility, while reticular fibers play a minor role in creating a supporting network within the ligament
describe the extracellular matrix of fascia and how its composition varies regarding 3 different types of fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers)
primarily composed of a dense network of collagen fibers, with a supporting network of thinner elastic fibers and reticular fibers
describe the extracellular matrix of the dermis layer of the skin and how its composition varies regarding 3 different types of fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers)
mainly consists of collagen fibers for strength and resilience, elastic fibers for flexibility, and reticular fibers that form a support network, especially in the papillary dermis. The main difference between these fibers lies in their size, arrangement, and the type of collagen they contain—type I collagen is more common in the deeper layers (reticular dermis), while type III collagen and reticular fibers are more prominent in the upper layers (papillary dermis).
Define organ and provide examples
a group of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function within a living organism; examples include the heart, lungs, liver, stomach, kidneys, skin, and brain
Define organ system and provide examples
a group of organs within a living organism that work together to perform a specific function, such as the digestive system (including the stomach, intestines, and liver), the circulatory system (including the heart and blood vessels), or the respiratory system (including the lungs and trachea)
What are the different parts of the integumentary system?
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, associated glands, hair, and nails
Name and explain the functions of the integumentary system
a protective barrier against external elements, regulating body temperature, detecting sensory stimuli like touch and pain, synthesizing Vitamin D, and maintaining fluid balance within the body
Name the skins two major layers and the layer that lies just below the skin
the epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (inner layer)
What main tissue type is the epidermis made up of?
stratified squamous epithelium
What main tissue type is the dermis made up of?
connective tissue layer
The epidermis is made up of what type of epithelial tissue?
stratified squamous epithelium
How does stratified squamous epithelium tissue fit one of the functions of skin?
provides a tough, multi-layered barrier that resists abrasion and prevents damage to the underlying tissues
Why are the top layers of skin cells dead (aka how does this happen)?
as new skin cells are made, they push the older ones to the surface. These old cells get filled with a tough protein called keratin, lose their food supply, and die, creating a protective layer.
What cells types make up the majority of the epidermis?
keratinocytes
What type of protein do keratinocyte cells make?
keratin
What is the function of keratin?
protect epithelial cells and tissues by creating a strong, waterproof barrier
What do melanocytes do?
produce melanin (pigment)
What level of the skin are melanocytes found in?
the basal (bottom) layer of the epidermis
Where are most of the structures such as blood vessels, nerves and glands found in theskin?
the dermis layer
Name the 5 signs of skin cancer to look for on your skin
Asymmetry: One half doesn't match the other.
Border: Edges are uneven or blurry.
Color: Multiple or changing colors.
Diameter: Larger than a pencil eraser.
Evolving: Any change in size, shape, or color.
Name the basic components of the skeletal system
Bones - the hard structures that make up the skeleton.
Cartilage - flexible tissue found in joints and between bones.
Ligaments - strong bands of tissue that connect bones to other bones.
Tendons - tissues that connect muscles to bones.
Joints - places where two or more bones meet, allowing movement.
What is a ligament?
Connects bone to bone
What is a tendon?
Connects muscle to bone
What is cartilage?
Flexible connective tissue
What is an articulation?
joint
Name the functions of the skeletal system
support the body, facilitate movement, protect internal organs, produce blood cells, and store minerals like calcium and phosphorus
How do long bones differ from the other 3 groups of bones based on shape
they're significantly longer than they are wide
What is proximal?
Closer to the point of attachment
What is distal?
Farther from any reference point
Where is the diaphysis in a long bone?
shaft
Where is the epiphysis in a long bone?
ends
Where is the compact bone in a long bone?
outside
Where is the spongy bone in a long bone?
ends
Where is the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) in a long bone?
ends
Where is the cartilage in a long bone?
ends
Where is the red and yellow marrow in a long bone?
red- ends
yellow- middle
What is the function of yellow bone marrow?
fat storage
What is the function of red bone marrow?
blood cell production
Where is the osteocyte in an osteon?
lacunae
What is an osteon?
the cylindrical, functional units of bone.
Where is the central canal in an osteon?
directly in the center
Where is the bone matrix in an osteon?
in the concentric rings, or lamellae
Where is the canaliculi in an osteon?
lacunae
Describe how nutrients are transported from the central canal to the osteocytes on the periphery of the osteon
canaliculi
Describe how osteocytes are involved in skeletal system remodeling
acting as the primary sensors of mechanical stress on the bone, transmitting signals to nearby cells to initiate bone formation or resorption depending on the stress applied
Describe how osteoblasts are involved in skeletal system remodeling
synthesizing and depositing the organic bone matrix (osteoid) which later mineralizes to form new bone
Describe how osteoclasts are involved in skeletal system remodeling
dissolve and break down old or damaged bone cells.
How can the ossification of epiphyseal plates aid an investigation that involves skeletal remains?
providing a reliable indicator of the deceased individual's age
Why is exercising good for your bones?
reduces the rate of bone loss and conserves bone tissue, lowering the risk of fractures
If blood calcium is low, _____________ is secreted in response
parathyroid hormone
parathyroid hormone increases the activity of which bone cell?
osteoblasts/stromal cells
