AP Biology Review Flashcards

This JSON contains flashcards for reviewing key vocabulary terms from AP Biology lecture notes, covering topics such as the chemistry of life, cell structure and function, cellular energetics, cell communication and the cell cycle, heredity, gene expression and regulation, natural selection, and ecology.

Electronegativity

An atom's attraction for the electrons of a covalent bond.

Adhesion

When water molecules stick to other things.

Cohesion

When water molecules stick to other water molecules.

Capillary Action

Cohesion and Adhesion working together, like how water moves up a tree.

Macromolecules

Carbs, Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Lipids.

Cellulose

Structural Carbs.

Starch

Storage Carbs.

Amino Acids

Make up Proteins.

Enzymes

Speeds up chemical reactions.

Transportation Protein

Transportation like a receptor.

Lipids

Steroids, Phospholipids, Fatty Acids.

Nucleic Acids

Made of Nucleotides. DNA and RNA

Monosaccharide

Monomer for Carbs (Exp:Glucose).

Glycosidic Bond

The covalent bond that connects two monosaccharides to make a disaccharide.

Polysaccharides

Many monosaccharides make up polysaccharides (100s-1000s), bonded together by glycosidic linkages.

Peptide Bond

Connects amino acids (N terminus to C terminus) and are formed at the “carboxyl end” of each amino acid.

Nucleic Acid

Nucleotide monomer.

Phosphodiester Linkage

Linkage between the hydroxyl group and phosphate.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules that do not interact with water.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Multiple phospholipids that face opposite with each other (outside is heads and inside is tails).

Primary Structure

Protein sequences of amino acids. R groups/side chains determined structure at other levels.

Secondary Structure

Amino acids chains fold and coil. Results in breaking of hydrogen bonds between amino acids backbones.

Tertiary Structure

Refers to the shape of a polypeptide chain from interactions of side chains.

Quaternary Structure

Multiple polypeptide forming one macromolecule. All 4 levels of structure determining function of the protein.

DNA

DNA is made up of two polynucleotide strands in a double helix.

Hydrolysis

Breaks a covalent bond by adding a water molecule (H and OH on either side). Breaks polymer to 2 monomers.

Eukaryotic Cell

Membrane bound organelles, DNA in nucleus. Endomembrane system (humans).

Prokaryotic Cell

No Membrane bound organelles, DNA roams freely in cytoplasm (bacteria).

Cytosol

Jelly-like substance that holds subcellular components.

Ribosomes

Made of rRNA(ribosomal RNA) and protein and synthesizes proteins.

Vacuole

Large vesicle that can serve a variety of functions; contains nutrients, control water within the cell.

Chloroplasts

Sites of photosynthesis, converts solar energy into chemical energy.

Granum

Stack of thylakoids.

Stroma

Fluid outside the granum and in the inner membrane (contains compounds that allow photosynthesis to occur).

Thylakoids

Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and “photosystem” proteins. Light Dependent photosynthesis occur here.

Lysosomes

Digest molecules and recycle materials. Contains hydrolytic enzymes.

Diffusion

Movement of a substance from high to low concentration.

Plasma Membrane

Separates a cell from its surrounding environment and allows cells to maintain a separate and stable internal environment.

Selectively Permeable

Allows some substances through.

Amphipathic

Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic region.

Glycoprotein and Glycolipids

Carbohydrate attached to a protein or lipid to help communication and recognition.

Cell Wall

Provides a structural boundary and a barrier for some substances

Diffusion

Movement of particles so that they tend to spread out in available space.

Passive Transport

Diffusion across a cell membrane. Requires no energy to move substances across.

Active Transport

Cell must use energy(ATP) to move solutes against the concentration gradient.

Endocytosis

Brings in large molecules with vesicles made of plasma membrane. Form of active transport.

Pinocytosis

The cell ingests liquids. (Endocytosis).

Phagocytosis

The cell takes in solids(forms a food vacuole and fuses with lysosomes).

Exocytosis

Removes molecules from the cell with vesicles.

Facilitated Diffusion

Molecules that cant pass the lipid bilayer cross through this type of diffusion. Passive transport aided by transport proteins. (Sodium and Potassium).

Simple Diffusion

Passive Transport, Down a concentration gradient, small nonpolar molecules, no transport protein needed, small amounts of water leaks through membrane.

Osmosis

Passive transport of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Tonicity

Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.

Isotonic

No net movement of solute and water. Cells without cell walls (animal cells) are best in this environment.

Hypertonic

More solute on the outside than inside - cell will lose water as water follows solute.

Hypotonic

More solute on the inside of the cell than outside - cell will gain too much water and possible burst. Cells with cell walls (plant cells) are best in this environment.

Turgid

Firm and healthy state for plants.

Flaccid

Limp and loss of water for plants.

Plasmolysed

Membrane pulls from cell wall, plant wilts.

Electrogenic Pumps

Transport proteins that use active transport to generate voltage.

Cotransport

Using another concentration gradient to bring in molecules against their gradient.

Compartmentalization

Separate out different processes within a cell.

ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY Evidence

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have two membranes, have their own ribosomes and they reproduce on their own.

Glycolysis

Takes place outside of the mitochondria. Produces Pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle

Takes place in the matrix. Gets rid of carbon dioxide from acetyl CoA.

Metabolism

Metabolism - Totality of an organism's chemical reactions.

Catabolic Pathways

Break down a complex molecule into simpler substances.

Anabolic Pathways

Use energy to build complex molecules into simpler molecules.

Catalysts

Molecules that speed up reactions without being consumed.

Activation Energy

Enzymes lower the __ required to begin a reaction and speeds up processes.

Substrate

The reactant an enzyme acts on.

Active Site

The part of the enzyme that the substrates bind to.

Competitive Inhibitors

Blocks substrates from entering active site.

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Binds to allosteric site to impede a reaction.

Exergonic

A net release of energy.

Endergonic

Absorbs free energy from its surroundings.

Energy Coupling

Use of exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.

Photosynthesis

Captures light energy - into chemical energy stored in sugars and other molecules.

NADPH

Reducing Agent

Fermentation

Respiration without the presence of oxygen (less efficient and more prokaryotes than eukaryotes).

Cellular Respiration

Process by which cells produce ATP from macromolecules.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Happens in muscles - taking glucose and breaking it two pyruvate which converts that into lactic acid which accepts electrons that turns NADH to NAD+. Still making 2 ATP.

Cell Communication

Cells generate, transmit, receive and respond to chemical signals.

Local Signaling

Communication with nearby or adjacent cells.

Autocrine Signaling

When a cell sends and receives its own signal.

Synaptic Signaling

When a neuron releases a neurotransmitter into a synapse, stimulating a target cell.

Paracrine Signaling

Involves one cell secreting molecules that act on nearby target cells.

Long-distance Signaling / Endocrine Signaling

Cells releasing chemicals into bodily fluids (blood) to reach target cells.

Ligand

Molecules that specifically binds to another molecule.

Protein Kinases

Enzymes that transfer phosphates from ATP to a protein.

Second Messengers

Small, nonpolar, water soluble molecules that are involved in many signaling pathways.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of constant internal environment when external conditions changes.

Negative Feedback

Loop that reduces or negates a stimulus.

Positive Feedback

Loop that reinforces a stimulus and leads to a greater response.

Cell cycle

Life of cell from formation to division

Mitosis

Division of nucleus.

Cytokinesis

Division of cytoplasm.

G1 Phase

Cell growth.

S Phase

Cell copies chromosomes, synthesizes.

G2 Phase

Cell prepares for division, copies all the organelles