AP European History

100 Years' War

A long conflict between England and France (1337–1453) in which Joan of Arc played a key role in the later years.

Black Plague

A deadly disease that wiped out millions in 14th-century Europe, spreading through fleas on rats.

Petrarch

"Father of Humanism" who revived classical Latin texts and individualism.

Humanism

Intellectual movement focusing on classical texts, human potential, and secularism.

Medici Family

Powerful banking family in Florence who patronized major Renaissance artists.

Florence, Italy

A wealthy Italian city-state, home to the Medici family and a center of Renaissance culture.

Individualism

Renaissance belief emphasizing personal achievement, unique talents, and glory.

Civic Humanism

A Renaissance philosophy emphasizing active participation in public affairs and politics.

Machiavelli

Author of "The Prince"; argued that rulers should be feared rather than loved to maintain power.

Castiglione

Renaissance author of The Book of the Courtier, describing the ideal nobleman.

Mirandola

Renaissance thinker who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, emphasizing human potential.

Erasmus

A Christian humanist who wrote In Praise of Folly and criticized church corruption.

Printing Press

Gutenberg’s invention (c. 1450) that accelerated the spread of knowledge and the Reformation.

Columbian Exchange

The global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds after 1492.

Mercantilism

Economic theory that a nation's power is based on its gold reserves and a favorable balance of trade.

Italian Renaissance Art

An artistic movement emerging in Italy focused on perspective, realism, and classical themes.

Northern Renaissance Art

An artistic movement in Northern Europe known for both biblical subject matter and depictions of daily life.

Da Vinci

Renaissance polymath who excelled in art, science, and anatomy; painted The Last Supper.

Mysticism

A religious belief emphasizing direct, personal experiences with God without church intervention.

95 Theses

Martin Luther’s 1517 arguments against the sale of indulgences, starting the Reformation.

Indulgences

Certificates sold by the Church to reduce the punishment for sins.

John Wycliffe

Reformer who rejected papal supremacy and argued the Bible was the ultimate authority.

Jan Hus

Reformer inspired by Wycliffe who condemned church corruption and was burned at the stake in 1415.

Martin Luther

German monk who challenged the Catholic Church by posting the 95 Theses in 1517.

Diet of Worms

A 1521 meeting where Martin Luther refused to recant his religious beliefs.

John Calvin

Protestant reformer who founded a strict movement based on the doctrine of predestination.

Predestination

John Calvin’s doctrine that God has already determined who will be saved.

Zwingli

Swiss reformer who disagreed with Luther on the Eucharist and died in battle.

Anabaptists

Radical reformers who advocated for adult baptism and separation of church and state.

Henry VIII

English king who broke from the Catholic Church to annul his marriage, establishing the Church of England.

Anglican Reformation

The religious transformation of England under Henry VIII.

Act of Supremacy

The 1534 law declaring the English monarch the supreme head of the Church of England.

French Wars of Religion

A series of violent 16th-century conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots.

Catholic/Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming doctrine and practice.

Council of Trent

Catholic Counter-Reformation meeting that reaffirmed traditional doctrine but ended Church abuses.

Jesuits

Order founded by Ignatius Loyola to spread Catholicism through education and missions.

German Peasants' War

A 16th-century uprising in the Holy Roman Empire inspired by religious and economic grievances.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Agreement allowing German princes to choose between Catholicism or Lutheranism for their land.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

French decree granting limited religious toleration to Huguenots (Protestants).

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

Mass killing of French Huguenots (Protestants) in 1572.

Thirty Years' War

A devastating religious and political war fought in the Holy Roman Empire from 1618 to 1648.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish king who fought for the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Treaty ending the Thirty Years' War; recognized state sovereignty and Calvinism.

Divine Right

The belief that a monarch’s authority is granted directly by God, not by the people.

Elizabeth I

Long-reigning queen who defeated the Spanish Armada and maintained English stability.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister who laid the foundations of French absolutism by centralizing power.

Cardinal Mazarin

Successor to Richelieu and chief minister for Louis XIV during his childhood.

Louis XIV

The "Sun King" of France; the ultimate absolute monarch who built Versailles.

Versailles

Louis XIV’s palace used to control the nobility and showcase his power.

Spanish War of Succession

A war fought over the right to rule Spain after the last Habsburg king died without an heir.

Treaty of Utrecht

The 1713 treaty ending the Spanish War of Succession.

Austrian War of Succession

An 18th-century war sparked by the Pragmatic Sanction challenging Austria’s succession.

Maria Theresa

Empress who defended her empire, implemented reforms, and mothered Marie Antoinette.

Peter the Great

Russian Tsar who westernized Russia and built a "Window to the West" at St. Petersburg.

Frederick II

Known as "the Great," he expanded Prussian power and embraced Enlightenment ideas.

Catherine the Great

Russian empress who embraced Enlightenment ideas while maintaining absolute rule.

English Civil War

Conflict between Parliament (Roundheads) and Charles I (Cavaliers).

Charles I of England

A 17th-century king who clashed with Parliament and was executed in 1649.

Test Acts

Laws restricting Catholics from holding public office in England.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the New Model Army who ruled England as a military dictator after the Civil War.

Charles II of England

The king restored to the throne in 1660 following the death of Cromwell.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

The bloodless replacement of James II with William and Mary.

English Bill of Rights

Document establishing a constitutional monarchy and the supremacy of Parliament.

Dutch Golden Age

17th-century period where the Netherlands dominated trade, finance, and art.

Dutch East India Company

Joint-stock company that dominated the spice trade and represented Dutch economic power.

Scientific Revolution

Intellectual movement challenging traditional views of the universe through observation and reason.

Copernicus

Scientist who proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered) model of the universe.

Galileo

Scientist who used a telescope to confirm the heliocentric theory and faced the Inquisition.

Kepler

Astronomer who discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits.

Newton

Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Empiricism

Scientific method relying on observation and sensory experience (Francis Bacon).

The Enlightenment

18th-century movement emphasizing reason, individual rights, and the questioning of tradition.

Hobbes

Philosopher who argued in Leviathan that humans are naturally selfish and need an absolute ruler.

Locke

Believed in natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that governments must protect them.

Voltaire

Enlightenment philosopher who championed freedom of speech and religious toleration.

Montesquieu

Argued for the separation of powers into three branches of government.

Rousseau

Wrote "The Social Contract"; believed government should follow the "General Will."

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote The Wealth of Nations, advocating for free markets.

Laissez-Faire

Economic policy promoting minimal government interference in business.

Salons

Social gatherings where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, often hosted by women.

Enlightened Absolutism

Monarchs like Catherine the Great who used Enlightenment ideas to modernize their states.

Seven Years' War

Global conflict (1756–1763) involving major powers; often called the first "world war."

American Revolution

Colonial uprising against Britain resulting in the independence of 13 colonies.

Haitian Revolt

The first successful slave uprising in the Americas, leading to an independent republic in 1804.

Estate System

The rigid social hierarchy of pre-revolutionary France (Clergy, Nobility, Commoners).

Louis XVI

The French king overthrown and executed during the French Revolution.

Marie Antoinette

Queen of France known for her perceived extravagance and execution during the Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

The July 14, 1789, attack on a Parisian prison that signaled the start of the Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

French Revolutionary document stating that all men are born free and equal in rights.

Olympe de Gouges

Feminist who wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman" and was executed.

Robespierre

Jacobin leader of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror.

Jacobins

Radical political club that led the French Republic during its most violent phase.

The Reign of Terror

Radical phase of the revolution marked by mass executions via the guillotine.

The Directory

The weak, five-man executive government that ruled France after Robespierre’s fall.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French general who became Emperor and conquered much of Europe.

Napoleonic Code

French Uniform legal system that protected property rights but restricted women's rights.

Napoleon's Invasion of Russia

Disastrous 1812 campaign where scorched earth tactics led to massive French losses.

Continental System

Napoleon’s failed economic blockade intended to destroy Britain's economy.

Congress of Vienna

1815 meeting that restored the balance of power and conservative monarchs to Europe.

Metternich

Austrian diplomat who led the Congress of Vienna and sought to suppress revolutions.