BIOL 2710 Exam 3

what system is the transportation system of the body?

the cardiovascular system

what system is essential to the maintenance of homeostasis?

cardiovascular system

substances are transported in the blood between the _________ environment and the ____ of the body

external, cells

what are the 6 main functions of the cardiovascular system?

protection, temperature regulation, hormone transport, excretory, respiratory, nutritive- products of digestion

respiratory functions of the cardiovascular system

oxygen to tissues for cellular respiration and CO₂ from cellular respiration to lungs for elimination

nutritive- products of digestion functions of the cardiovascular system

absorbed in the small intestine and transported to every cell for storage or use

excretory functions of the cardiovascular system

kidney filter blood, remove metabolic wastes, excess ions, and water for excretion in the urine, and balance pH

hormone transport functions of the cardiovascular system

chemical messengers that coordinate all bodies responses

temperature regulation functions of the cardiovascular system

blood vessels near the skin close to retain heat if you are cold and blood vessels near skin open to radiate heat if you are hot

protection regulation functions of the cardiovascular system

the clotting mechanism minimizes blood loss if you get cut and white blood cells circulating in the blood protect us from invading organisms

blood is a __________ tissue whose cells (formed elements) are suspended in liquid called ______

connective, plasma

what are three groups of cells?

red blood cells- erythrocytes, white blood cells- leukocytes, and platelets- thrombocytes

cells comprise ___% of whole blood volume

45

55% of whole blood volume is _______

plasma

disorders of the blood- red blood cells

anemia, inability of the blood to carry enough oxygen, can be due to lack of red blood cells, can be due to too many red blood cells (blood too thick), can be due to a lack of hemoglobin

pernicious anemia

low red blood cell count and caused from vitamin B₁₂ deficiency

folate deficiency anemia

low red blood cell count and caused from folate deficiency

iron deficiency anemia

low amount of hemoglobin and caused by iron deficiency

thallasemia

beta- major and minor (amount of loss) blood disorder

less beta chains produced, too many alpha chains, and single alpha chains destroy cell membranes

leukopenia

disorder of the white blood cells, low white blood cell count, immune diseases- AIDS and COVID

leukocytosis

disorder of the white blood cells, high white blood cell count, bacteria infection, cancer- Leukemia

thrombocytopenia

disorder of blood platelet, low platelet count, cancer, immune disease, or bone marrow damage from drugs, radation, etc.

thrombocytosis

disorder of blood platelet, high platelet count- inflammation, can lead to a blood clot- thrombus if stationary or embolus if mobile

plasma characteristics

liquid portion of blood, contains water soluble materials and colloids

red blood cells- erythrocytes characteristics

99% of formed elements (cells) in whole blood, 45% of blood volume, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body, contain the protein hemoglobin

hemoglobin

heme= iron, globin= protein, four proteins each with a heme unit, each heme unit contains an iron atom that an O₂ molecule will attach to

what are the two principal functions of erythrocytes?

carry oxygen from lungs to cell tissues and convert CO₂ from tissues into HCO₃ and bring to lungs

mature red blood cells have no nuclei which allows for more room for __________

hemoglobin

where are red blood cells formed?

in red bone marrow

gas transport from red blood cells

CO2 is produced in the tissues during cellular respiration, O2 is used in respiration, tissues are high in CO2 and low in O2, oxygenated blood from the lungs is high in O2 and low in CO2, CO2 from tissues diffuses into blood coming from the lungs, O2 diffuses out of blood coming from lungs into the tissues, when blood gets to the lungs the diffusion gradients are reversed, CO₂ diffuses into the lungs from the blood, and O₂ diffuses into the blood from the lungs

what is the percent composition of the air you inhale?

78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.33% CO₂

what is most of the O₂ carried on?

the hemoglobin in the red blood cells

only __% of CO₂ is carried on the hemoglobin molecule

5

diffusion or red blood cells-erythrocytes

diffusion is aided by the fact that hemoglobin changes shape in the presence of carbon dioxide and this makes it release the oxygen more easily, this is convenient, because the oxygen is needed most where carbon dioxide is present

some of the carbon dioxide is transported in the cytoplasm of the red blood cells as ______, but most is carried in the plasma as ______

HCO₃-

when carbon dioxide chemically reacts with water what does it form?

carbonic acid, H₂O + CO₂ → H₂CO₃ (HCO₃- + H⁺

what chemical reaction occurs naturally as there is an enzyme in your red blood cells that speeds it up called carbonic anhydrase?

carbon dioxide reacting with water

what does the formation of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions lead to?

in the cytoplasm of red blood cells it removes carbon dioxide from the cytoplasm and allows more room for CO₂ to diffuse in from the tissues

what are the two ways the carbonic acid reaction is used in the body?

1. it facilitates gas exchange by removing CO₂ from red blood cell cytoplasm, more CO₂ can diffuse into the cytoplasm from the surrounding tissues

2. it helps to buffer blood pH, carbonic acid dissociating into H⁺ and HCO₃- makes the blood more acidic, and increasing respiration gets rid of carbon dioxide and reverses reaction, raising blood pH

why is the conversion of CO₂ to HCO₃- important?

there is only a 5% difference in carbon dioxide concentration between the blood and tissues

what are the 6 types of white blood cells (cells of the immune system)?

neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, natural killer cells, lymphocytes (include B and T cells)

neutrophils

fast moving phagocytic cells, first on the scene, release bleach like compounds

monocytes

precursors to macrophages- main eaters of invaders and arrive as monocytes and mature at infection site

eosinophils

phagocytic cells that attack parasites

basophils

phagocytic cells that cause allergy symptoms, release heparin which prevents blood clotting, release histamines which dilate blood vessels and increase white blood cell mobility, involved in inflammatory response

natural killer cells

attack infected cells, specialize in virus attacks, not phagocytic, from the same lymphocyte lineage as B and T cells, release perforin proteins that create a hole in the cell membrane of infected cells (similar to T cell attack), and cause infected cells to burst by letting water rush in

lymphocytes (B and T cells)

cells that recognize and attack specific foreign molecules or antigens, parts of proteins, glycolipids, or glycoproteins recognized as foreign are called antigens

B cell lymphocytes

recognize a specific foreign antigen and produce antibodies to it, activated B cells (producing antibodies) are called plasma cells, antibodies are proteins that stick to a particular antigen, and non-specific cells attack the antibody marked cells

T cell lymphocytes

kills cells with a specific anitgen on them

platelets/thrombocytes

formed in red marrow by the breakup of megakaryocytes- no nuclei in platelets, transform into sticky platelets when they contact a damaged blood vessel wall or the connective tissue under it, they stick to each other and the blood vessel, and form platelet plugs that stop blood flow

blood plasma- water

92%, solvent, temperature regulation, and metabolic reactions

blood plasma- proteins

6-7%, albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, and prothrombin

alumin

maintains osmotic pressure, affects cell volume, and draws fluid back into capillaries from interstitial space

globulins

antibodies from B cells- immune response, attach to parts of foreign molecules

fibrinogen and prothrombin

blood clotting

blood plasma- nutrients

amino acids, monosaccharides, and lipoproteins- transport lipids

blood plasma- wastes

urea from amino acid metabolism and creatine- ATP production

blood plasma- electrolytes

molecules that ionize in solution, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc., osmotic pressure, resting membrane potential, pH

blood plasma is ____ blood minus the cells or formed elements attained by centrifuging whole blood

whole

blood ______ is whole blood minus the cells and clotting agents attained by letting blood clot

serum

hemostasis

the stoppage of bleeding, injury induces blood vessel to spasm, platelets form platelet plug, platelet factors cause further blood vessel constriction, and if injury is severe enough coagulation is triggered

first stage of blood clotting

can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic and both mechanisms result in production of prothrombin activator (PA)

extrinsic stage of blood clotting

chemicals not normally found in the blood are released by injury and these trigger formation of prothrombin activators (thromboplastins) from the tissues

intrinsic stage of blood clotting

damages endothelial lining of vessels exposes collagen, triggering the release of prothrombin activators in the blood, sticky platelets secrete the factors used in this pathway

where are blood proteins (except globins) produced?

liver

what does the liver produce?

albumin, fibrinogen, and prothrombin

what vitamin is required for prothrombin production and blood clotting?

vitamin K

what does vitamin K deficiency cause?

hemophilia

where is vitamin K produced?

in the large intestine (50% and 50% from diet)

what are the three lines of defense for immune response?

walls and moats, roaming patrols, and sentries

parts of walls and moats in immune response

skin and mucous linings, review skin- sweat, pH, and lysozymes

roaming patrols parts in immune response

phagocytic cells and nonspecific response to any invader

sentries parts in immune response

specific response, antigen triggered- antibody assisted

what do cells of our immune system protect us from and how?

invading microbes by attacking cells that have unfamiliar molecules on them (like proteins, carbohydrates- ABO, or lipids- Rh)

what is a piece of a foreign molecule that triggers an attack called?

an antigen

one part of the immune system response is to produce proteins called __________ that stick to _________ on foreign cells.

antibodies, antigens

antibodies target the _____ for attack.

cells

the ABO blood groups are the result of what?

two different glycoproteins in the cell membranes of red blood cells which have different carbohydrate flags sticking out of the cell (A or B)

the red blood cells in your body and the cells of your vascular organs have either:

the A carbohydrate, the B carbohydrate, both the A and B carbohydrate, or neither carbohydrate

type ____ have galactosamine

A

type _____ have galactose

B

type ____ have both galactosamine and galactose

AB

type ___ have neither galactosamine and galactose

O

your immune system will create _______ to attack either carbohydrate if they are not a normal part of your cells

antibodies

the A and B carbohydrate flags are _____ if they are not normally part of your red blood cells.

antigens

what happens if you receive blood from someone with a different blood type?

your antibodies attack the foreign antigen on their cells

when do we develop antibodies to the antigens of other blood types?

6 months after birth

type AB blood has ____ antigens and ___ antibodies

both, no

type O blood has neither antigen on its cells, and antibodies to both __ and __

a, B

aggulation

when your antibodies cause blood cells with foreign antigens to stick together in a clump

what can cause a fatal transfusion reaction?

agglutination

what blood type is the universal donor?

type O

what blood type is the universal receiver?

type AB

A antibody comes from a type ___ person

B

B antibody comes from a type ___ person

A

the Rh antigen is a glycolipid on the ______ blood cell surface

red

individuals that posses the Rh antigen are Rh ________

positive

_____% of the population in the US is Rh positive

85

only an Rh _________ person can develop the antibodies to the Rh factor

negative