1/115
Looks like no tags are added yet.
Name | Mastery | Learn | Test | Matching | Spaced |
---|
No study sessions yet.
why is water important?
reactant, in lots of chemical reactions including hydrolysis
ice floats, water is less dense when it is a solid and forms and insulating layer
habitat, organisms survive and reproduce in it
solvent, some substances dissolve in it. Most biological reactions take place in solution
transports substances, like glucose and oxygen around plants and animals
temperature control, high specific heat capacity and high latent heat of vaporisation
why is water polar?
In each molecule the hydrogen is positive and oxygen is negative. So water has both a slightly negative and positive side meaning its ‘polar’. But is neutral overall.
Where do hydrogen bonds exist?
formed between a highly electro-negative atom of a polar molecule and a hydrogen
Is hydrogen bonds weak?
one hydrogen bond is weak
many hydrogen bonds are strong
what are properties of water?
cohesion
adhesion
high specific heat
high latent heat of vaporisation
density
solvent
What is the meaning of Cohesion?
Attraction between molecules of the same type due to polarity of the molecule. This results in surface tension.
What is meaning of Adhesion?
Attraction between two different substances. Water will make hydrogen bonds with other surfaces.
What is meaning of specific heat capacity?
The energy needed to raise 1kg of water by 1 degree. Due to H bonds, water can absorb or release large amounts of heat energy with little change in actual temperature.
How is High specific heat lead to an excellent habitat?
prevention of temperature fluctuations that are outside the range suitable for life
a stable marine environment
What is meaning of high latent heat of vaporisation?
The energy needed to convert 1kg of a substances from a liquid to a gas. In order for water to evaporate hydrogen bonds must be broken. As water evaporates it removes a lot of heat with it.
What is High Latent Heat of Vaporisation responsible for?
moderating earth’s climate
preventing organisms from overheating
why is the density of water important?
prevents water from freezing from the bottom up
ice forms on surface first- freezing water releases heat to the water below creating insulation
makes transition between seasons less abrupt
most dense at 4 degrees
contracts until 4 degrees
expands from 4 degrees to 0 degrees
Is water less dense as a Solid or as a liquid?
Less dense as a solid because liquid water has H bonds that are constantly being broken and reformed. Frozen water forms a crystal-like lattice whereby molecules are set at fixed distances
How does a solvent work?
Negative and positive parts of water is attracted to negative and positive parts of a solute. Water molecules cluster around solute, keeping them apart. At this point they dissolve and solution is formed
Give 3 important functions of water in mammals
solvent as can transport substances in the blood
reactions are carried out in the cytoplasm which is mostly water
water is used in metabolic reactions to make and break bonds (hydrolysis and condensation)
what is the role of calcium ions?
muscle contraction
bone formation
what is the role of sodium ions?
nerve impulses
affects absorption of carbohydrate in the intestine
what is the role of potassium ions?
nerve impulses
stomatal opening
what is the role of hydrogen ions?
production of ATP
ph determination (more H+ ions than OH- ions in solutions creates and acid)
what is the role of ammonium ions?
production of nitrate ions by bacteria
what is the role of nitrate ion?
component of nucleic acids
a component of nitrogen cycle
what is the role of hydrogen carbonate ions?
involved in the transport of co2
what is the role of chloride ions?
involved in transport of co2
regulates affinity of haemoglobin
what is the role of phosphate ions?
component of phospholipid, ATP and nucleic acids
helps root growth
what is the role of hydroxide ions?
involved in regulation of blood pH (more OH- ions that H+ ions in solutions creates and alkali)
what are condensation reactions?
joining of compounds to form a chemical bond, with an elimination of water
what are hydrolysis reactions?
breaking down of compounds by breaking down chemical bonds with the usage of water
what do condensation reactions form?
polymers
what do hydrolysis reactions form?
monomers
what is a hydroxyl group?
alcohol group
what is a glycosidic bond?
covalent bond which links carbohydrate group to another group
what is a peptide bond?
covalent bond which links amino acids together in proteins
what type of molecules is carbohydrates made up of?
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
what type of molecules is proteins made up of?
nitrogen
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
what type of molecule is nucleic acid made up of?
carbon
oxygen
phosphorus
nitrogen
what type of molecule if lipids made up of?
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
what is the monomer of carbohydrates?
monosaccharides
what is polymer of carbohydrates?
polysaccharides
what is the monomer of proteins?
amino acids
what is the polymer of proteins?
polypeptides
what is the monomer of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
what is the polymer of nucleic acids?
RNA
DNA
what is the difference between a-glucose ring and B- glucose ring?
for a glucose the H is at the top and OH is bottom but opposite for B
what are some uses of carbohydrates?
substrate for respiration (glucose)
energy store (starch and glycogen)
structural (cellulose, chitin in arthropod exoskeletons)
hereditary information (pentose sugar deoxyribose)
recognition of molecules outside of cells (attaches to proteins or lipids on cell membranes)
what is structure of a monosaccharide?
carbon backbone can be made of 3,4,6 carbon atoms
one C forms a double bond with an oxygen atom
other carbons in chain are bonded to one hydrogen atom and one hydroxyl group
the sugars taste sweet and are soluble in water
what do glucose and glucose make?
maltose. (malt sugar)
what do galactose and glucose make?
lactose (milk sugar)
what does glucose and fructose make?
sucrose (table sugar)
what is the formula for the maltose, sucrose, lactose from condensation?
C12 H22 O11 +H2O
what is the name of the reaction to create a glycoside linkage between two sugars?
condensation
what is the scientific term for a pair of carbohydrate
monomers linked together?
disaccharide
what are examples of polysaccharides?
starch
glycogen
cellulose
4 Features of Starch
ONLY plants store excess glucose as starch
insoluble in water so doesn't affect osmosis
mixture of amylose and amylopectin
alpha glucose
What is structure of amylose?
unbranched helix- shaped chain
1,4 glycosidic bonds between a-glucose molecules
helix shaped allows more compact and thus more resistant to digestion
10-30% starch
compact so good for storage
alpha glucose
what is structure of amylopectin?
branched molecule
1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
70-90% starch
glucose can be released quickly as is easier for enzymes to get to branches
alpha glucose
Where is starch found?
plants
where is glycogen found?
animals
where is cellulose found?
plants
what glucose is starch?
alpha glucose
what glucose is glycogen?
alpha glucose
what glucose is cellulose?
beta glucose
what is structure of glycogen?
alpha glucose
1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
branched molecule
more branches than amylopectin
what is structure of cellulose?
Beta glucose
1,4 glycoside bond rotated 180 degrees allowing bond of hydroxyl groups
any chains run parallel to each other forming microfibrils, which is strengthened with cross-linkages (hydrogen bonds), giving cellulose its stability, valuable structural material and difficult to digest
space between microfibrils to allow water and minerals to pass but some cases gaps blocked to make it waterproof
what are three types of lipids?
triglycerides
phospholipids
steroids
what is triglyceride made up of?
one molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
what are triglycerides functions?
energy source (broken down in respiration)
insulation (around nerve cells across the as electrical insulation)
energy store (insoluble in water so don’t affect water potential)
buoyancy (fat is less dense than water so allows animals to float)
protection (fat around organs acts as a shock absorber)
what does it mean to be saturated?
single bonds
what does it mean to be unsaturated?
has at least one double bond
what does it mean to be polyunsaturated?
many double bonds
what type of reaction happens between glycerol and fatty acid?
esterification (condensation)
what type of bond is between glycerol and fatty acid?
ester bond
what is a phospholipid made up of?
diglyceride
phosphate group
simple organic molecule such as chlorine
what is the difference between phospholipid and triglyceride?
in phospholipid there are only two fatty acid groups unlike the three fatty acids in triglyceride because one of them is replaced by phosphate group
in a phospholipid what part is hydrophilic and hydrophobic?
phosphate is hydrophilic
fatty acids tail is hydrophobic
how would phospholipids form a layer on surface of water?
heads in the water and tails sticking up and out of the water
phospholipids in water could also form micelles what are they?
tiny balls with tails tucked inside and heads pointing in the water
what is a phospholipid bilayer?
two rows of phospholipids with tails pointing inwards and heads pointing outwards
what is structure of cholesterol?
4 carbon based rings and a hydrocarbon tail
the ring with a hydroxyl group
what does cholesterol do relating to phospholipids?
fits in-between phospholipids and regulates the fluidity of the cell surface membrane
are animal fats saturated or unsaturated?
saturated and that’s why they’re solid at room temp
are plant fats saturated or unsaturated?
unsaturated and that’s why oils are liquid at room temperature
what are sterols?
complex alcohol molecules based on a four carbon ring structure with a hydroxyl group at one end
what is peptides?
polymers made up of amino acids
what are proteins?
consists of one or more polypeptides arranged as a complex macromolecule and have specific biological functions
what are essential amino acids?
amino acids that our bodies cannot make and can only be obtained through diet
what are the different parts that make up an amino acid?
amino group
the R group
carboxyl acid group
How Is a peptide bond formed?
the hydroxyl group of the carboxylic group reacts with the hydrogen group of amino group of an another amino acid
condensation reaction
resultes in a dipeptide
what is it called when lots of amino acids form peptide bonds?
polypeptide
How do R groups do to make a protein from a polypeptide?
R groups interact with each other (R group interactions) forming different types of bonds
leading to long chains of amino acids (polypeptides) folding into complex structures (proteins)
explain the primary structure of protein structure?
sequence of which amino acids are joined
directed by information carried in the DNA
particular amino acids in sequence will determine how polypeptide folds to create protein’s final shape, and in turn its function
peptide bonds only
explain the secondary structure of protein structure?
weak negatively charged nitrogen and oxygen atoms interact with weak positively charged hydrogen atoms
can form a-helix (coil shape), or B-pleated sheets (sheet like structure)
hydrogen bonds
explain the tertiary structure of protein structure?
shapes formed by bending and twisting
addition bonds form between R groups
hydrogen bonds (numerous but easily broken)
disulphide bonds (covalent, strong but only between sulphur in R groups)
ionic bonds (form between oppositely charged R groups)
hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions ( weak interactions between polar groups or non-polar groups R groups)
explain the quaternary structure of protein structure?
more than one polypeptide chain working together as a functional macromolecule eg haemoglobin
each polypeptide chain is referred to a subunit of a protein
there may be a non-protein
what are the two main categories that tertiary and quaternary structures fall under?
globular proteins
fibrous proteins
what are the features of globular proteins?
almost spherical in shape
soluble in water because the hydrophilic groups are on outside and the hydrophobic R groups are on inside
3D shape
e.g enzymes
what are the features of fibrous proteins?
repetitive sequence of amino acids
insoluble in water because of high proportion of amino acids with hydrophobic
organised structures
not folded into complex three dimensional shapes like globular proteins
e.g collagen
is haemoglobin globular or fibrous protein?
globular
what is haemoglobin made up of?
two a-globin
two B-globin
haem area called prosthetic group as a molecule of oxygen can bind to each haem group (contains iron)
what is a conjugated protein? With An Example
a protein with a non-protein group attached
haemoglobin
What are the features of Insulin?
globular protein
involved in the regulation of glucose concentration
made of two polypeptide chains
chain A starts with section of a-helix and B chain ends with section of B-pleat
both chains joined by disulphide links
hydrophilic are on outside making it soluble