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Positive impacts of climate change on Arctic trade routes

More trade routes, quicker shipping, less fuel needed, shorter routes than currently exist

Negative impacts of climate change on Arctic trade routes

More conflict over routes, rising sea levels reduce resources and increase tension, some nations lack resources to manage channels (e.g. Canada)

Percentage of solar energy reflected back into space

Approximately 35%

Percentage of solar energy available to plants on Earth’s surface

Only 1–4%

Ways energy stored in plants is released

Decomposition (humus), combustion (CO₂ & ash), consumption (digestion)

Definition of autotrophs

Producers that obtain energy through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

Definition of heterotrophs

Consumers that obtain energy by ingesting other organisms

How climate change threatens ecosystems

Alters abiotic factors, increasing risk of collapse or decline

Effect of climate change on deserts

Changes in precipitation reduce soil nutrients and plant growth

Effect of ocean acidification on coral reefs

Hinders calcification, coral skeletons degrade or can't form

Effect of fertiliser runoff on rivers

Causes eutrophication, leading to harmful algae blooms

Effect of a 2.5ºC temperature rise on agriculture

May increase crop yield

Effect of temperature rise over 2.5ºC on agriculture

Becomes counterproductive, damaging to crops

Effect of increased CO₂ on plant growth

Increases photosynthesis, negative feedback on climate

Why Australia is prone to drought

It’s the driest inhabited continent with low, variable rainfall and high evaporation

Southern Oscillation

Climate pattern affecting trade winds and ocean currents (e.g., El Niño)

Two major droughts in Australia

Federation drought (1895–1902), Millennium drought (1997–2009)

Impacts of drought

Poor crop yields, poverty, high food prices, political unrest

Definition of transnational pollution

Movement of waste across borders, causing environmental injustice

E-waste issues in Ghana

Waste burned to extract copper, toxic smoke causes serious health issues

Effects of e-waste in Guiyu, China

80% of children have respiratory illness, lead poisoning, widespread health issues

Environmental pathway for e-waste toxins

Toxic chemicals enter the "soil-crop-food pathway" and contaminate food

Role of HICs in e-waste crisis

Export waste to LICs, exploit legal loopholes to avoid responsibility

Definition of carbon trading

Companies trade emissions allowances, incentivising lower emissions

Criticisms of carbon credits

Fraudulent, many do not reduce real emissions, create loopholes for polluters

Definition of contraction and convergence

Global carbon rationing system, equal per capita limits, phased reduction

Definition of transition towns

Local communities localise food and energy production (e.g., Devon, UK)

EU Emissions Trading Scheme

First global carbon market (2005), requires payment for emissions, reduces total emissions

Examples of climate protest movements

School Strike for Climate, Extinction Rebellion, local anti-mining protests

Kyoto Protocol

1997 treaty requiring carbon reduction commitments, heavier burden on developed countries

Definition of solar geoengineering

Makes Earth more reflective using particles in upper atmosphere

Risks of solar geoengineering

May cause drought, reduce crop yields, promote ongoing emissions

Definition of carbon capture and storage (CCS)

CO₂ stored underground/offshore in rock; leakage is a major risk

1986 Lake Nyos disaster in Cameroon

CO₂ leak from lake killed 700 people

Factors affecting exposure to climate change

Location, wealth, age, gender, health, education, risk perception

Groups most vulnerable to climate change

Children, elderly, disabled, poor, Indigenous people, refugees, single-parent households, carers

UNFCCC (1992) goal

Stabilise GHG concentrations to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate

UNFCCC outcome

Failed to slow greenhouse gas emission rate

UNFCCC emission target

HICs cut emissions by 20% by 2012 compared to 1990 levels

UNFCCC and LICs

LICs not required to cut emissions

UNFCCC key countries

US did not sign; Australia and Canada signed but didn’t take action

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Signed by 183 countries; aimed to stabilise greenhouse gases at safe levels

Kyoto emission target

Reduce emissions by 5% of 1990 levels by 2012

Kyoto benefits

Encouraged carbon economy, promoted renewables

Paris Agreement (2015)

174 countries signed; limit global warming to 2°C; aim for net zero emissions between 2050–2100

Paris Agreement limitations

No country-specific goals, timeline, or penalties for inaction

GHG mitigation strategies

Reduce emissions, energy use, deforestation; use alternatives to fossil fuels

Geo-engineering

Deliberate large-scale intervention in Earth’s climate system to counteract climate change

Carbon dioxide removal strategies

Carbon capture and storage, ocean fertilisation, strengthening carbon sinks

Pollution control strategies

Reduce pollution, increase renewable energy, improve public transport, recycling

Decarbonisation

Efficiency + fuel shift toward renewables + emission reduction (NOx & methane)

Carbon taxes

Tax carbon emissions to push transition to renewables

Civil society climate organisations

WWF, Greenpeace, Climate Action Network

NGO climate goals

Pressure countries to reduce emissions, conserve forests, shift to 100% renewables by 2050

Characteristics of agro-industrialised farming

Large-scale, intensive, specialised, reliant on tech/transport

Green revolution impacts

Changed growing, processing, distributing and consuming of food

Palm oil industry

Major driver of deforestation; dominated by Indonesia and Malaysia

Greenpeace & palm oil

Promotes sustainable palm oil, educates, targets consumer awareness

WWF & palm oil

Holds RSPO, tracks supply chains, focuses on biodiversity

Main causes of soil degradation

Weathering, erosion, biological, physical, chemical degradation

Effects of wind erosion

Removes topsoil → less fertility

Biological degradation

Loss of humus, soil organisms, and plant life due to cultivation

Physical degradation

Tillage breaks soil structure, reduces permeability

Chemical degradation

Includes acidification, salinisation, and nutrient depletion

Salinisation

Salts left in soil after irrigation water evaporates

Acidification

Build-up of hydrogen ions due to fertiliser, waste, or acid rain

Nutrient depletion

Intensive farming & harvesting remove essential nutrients

Major types of soil pollution

Hydrocarbons, PCBs, agrichemicals, organotin compounds, PAHs

Attrition

Bedload collides, breaks into smaller, rounder pieces

Corrasion (abrasion)

Fine material scrapes river bank and bed like sandpaper

Corrosion

Acidic water dissolves rock (e.g. limestone)

Hydraulic action

Force of water dislodges rocks from banks

Traction

Large rocks roll along river bed

Saltation

Small stones bounce in leap-frogging motion

Suspension

Fine sand/silt carried in the water

Solution

Soluble materials dissolve and are transported downstream

Drainage basin

Area where water drains into oceans/lakes via rivers

Endorheic basin

Closed drainage basin with no ocean outlet

Infiltration

Water soaks into soil

Overland flow

Surface runoff when rain exceeds infiltration or soil is saturated

Throughflow

Water flows through soil via pipes or percolines

Base flow

Groundwater seeping into river bed

Vegetation store

Water stored on leaves and stems before absorption or evaporation

Throughfall

Water falls through vegetation gaps

Stemflow

Water flows down branches/trunk

Soil store

Water held as soil moisture

Field capacity

Maximum water soil can hold after drainage

Wilting point

Moisture level at which plants permanently wilt

Aquifer

Underground rock that stores water

Percolation

Water moves from soil into rock

Phreatic zone

Saturated rock layer; top is water table