Bio wrap b3.1-4.2

Is gas exchange easier or harder for oranisms with large surface area to volume ratio? Justify with 2 reasons

Gas exchange is easier for organisms with larger surface area to volume ratio

- As the distance between the centre of the organism and the exterior surface is smaller

- Organisms with smaller surface area have a large distance between the exterior surface often causing them to rely on specialized gas exchange surfaces, which is not as practical

What are 3 Properties of gas-exchange surfaces

Permeable

Moist

Thin

What are 4 adaptations of of mammalian lungs for gas exchange

-each mammalian lung is comprised of many small alveoli

- alveoli are grouped around the ends of bronchioles, which spreads out to form a branched network across each lung

- the clusters of alveoli are surrounded by an extensive capillary bed

- Cells of the alveolar wall secrete a substance called surfactant which lowers the surface tension in the alveoli

What is the role of the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles and ribs in ventilation?

- Diaphragm: The primary muscle for respiration, when it contracts it flattens and moves downwards, creating space in the chest cavity for air to fill the lungs.

- Intercostal muscles: the external intercostals contract to elevate the rib cage during inhalation, while the internal intercostals assist in forceful exhalation by depressing the ribs.

- Abdominal muscles: Primarily used during forceful exhalation, when they contract they push against the diaphragm, increasing pressure in the abdominal cavity and forcing air out of the lungs.

- Ribs: allow for the movement of the rib cage during breathing.

How can you determine tidal volume, vital capacity, and inspiratory and expiratory reserves?

Using a spirometer, which measures the volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a patient during a breathing test; the patient takes a deep breath in and then forcefully exhales into the spirometer

What are 4 Adaptations for gas exchange in leaves

- have a large surface area

- contain openings called stomata to allow carbon dioxide into the leaf and oxygen out

- spongy layer which have airs spaces allows to gases to fiddles through the leaf

guard cells which regulate the size of the stomata

What 3 things affect Transpiration as a consequence of gas exchange in a leaf

temperature

humidity

air movement

How do you calculate stomatal density

mean number of stomata/ area of field of view

What are 2 Adaptations of foetal and adult haemoglobin for the transport of oxygen

Foetal hemoglobins

- have a stronger affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin

Adult hemoglobin

- binding is cooperative In a hemoglobin molecule

What is a Bohr Shift? Explain(2pt)

- the reduction in the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen in high carbon concentrations

- It helps to ensure that respiring tissues have enough oxygen when their need for oxygen is greatest

.Explain the S-shaped form of the curve in terms of cooperative binding for Oxygen dissociation

- the s shaped curve is due to cooperative binding , as the hemoglobins become saturated with oxygen as the the avability of oxygen increase, but once all binding sites for hemoglbin arre filled the saturation stagnates

What are 4 Adaptations of capillaries for exchange of materials between blood and the internal or external environmen

High surface area

- Increase scope for diffusion between the blood and tissue cells

Thin cell walls

- Allow rapid exchange of materials by diffusion

Pore between empitehemal cells

- Allow fluid to leak out through the basement membrane

Basement of membrane

- A mesh of fibrous proteins forming a gel that acts as a filter

How can you tell the difference between an artery and vein on a micrograph

Arteries have a thicker wall than veins

What are 3 differences between veins and arteries

Veins

- carry a stream of low pressure blood from organs to the heart

- wider lumen

- thinner wall

arteries

- carry pulses of high pressure blood away from the heart to the organs of the body

- Narrow lumen

- thicker wall

Where should you put your fingers to measure pulse rates

the wrist and the neck

What are the Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries?(4) If you find a high r value between fat intake and coronary heart disease does this PROVE a casual link?

happens when coronary arteries struggle to supply the heart with enough blood, oxygen and nutrients, usually due to buildup of plaque or fatty deposits

Can cause

- Heart attack

- Chest pain

- Shortness of breath

- No, while the two may associate there can be outside functions

Outline the process of transpiration(use xylem, tension, capillary action, water potential in answer)

water is absorbed by plant roots, transported through the xylem tissue to the leaves, and evaporates into the atmosphere through tiny pores called stomata, creating a "tension" that pulls the water column upwards due to the cohesive properties of water molecules, facilitated by capillary action and a gradient of decreasing water potential from the roots to the leave

What are 3 properties/characteristics of xylem

- Conducts water and minerals

- Has lignified cell walls

- The primary water conducting cells are dead at maturity,so flow of water must be passive

Draw and annotate the distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant(vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, cortex and epidermis)

just label what it says in question

Draw and annotate the distribution of tissues in a transverse section of a root of a dicotyledonous plant(vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, cortex and epidermis)

just label what it says in question, idk where vascular bundle is

.How is fluid Released and reuptake in capillaries(2pts) What is the composition of plasma and tissue fluid

- Capillaries that are close to an arteriole tend to release tissue fluid, because the blood supplied by the arteriole is at high pressure

- Tends to happen in capillaries that are close to a venule, where the blood pressure is much lower

- Plasma, is primarily composed of water (around 90%), with dissolved proteins, ions like sodium and chloride, glucose, hormones, and various other substances

- Tissue fluids contain all in blood plasma besides large protein molecules

Differences between the single circulation of bony fish and the double circulation of mammals

- In fish blood flow through the heart only once per circuit, mammals twice)

- fish have two heart chambers, mammals have four

- fish have only one systemic circuit, mammals have both pulmonary and systemic circuits

- single circulation is less efficient than double circulation

Draw a heart and draw arrows through the heart to show how it flows( include: : cardiac muscle, pacemaker, atria, ventricles, atrioventricular and semilunar valves, septum and coronary vessels) (10pts)

this is wrong, look in book i dont even know what a pacemaker is

Outline the stages of the cardiac cycle(summarize figure 31)8pts

0.0-0.1 seconds: atrial systole

- The atrium contracts causing a rapid but small pressure increase , which pumps blood to the ventricle

the semilunar valve is closed

.1-.15 seconds: ventricular seconds

- the ventricle contracts, with a rapid pressure build up that causes the atrioventricular valve to close

the semilunar valve remains closed

.15-.4

- The pressure in the ventricle rises above the pressure in the valve , so semilunar valve opens

pressure slowly rises in the atrium as blood drains in from the vein and the atrium fills

.4-.45

- the ventricle stops contracting and pressure inside it rapidly drops below the pressure in the artery, causing the semilunar valve to close

the atrioventricular valve remains closed

.45-.8

- Pressure in the ventricle drops below the pressure in the atrium so the atrioventricular valve opens

blood from the vein drains into the atrium and from there until the ventricle, causing a slow increase in pressure

What is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure?

Systolic pressure is the maximum blood pressure during the contraction of the ventricles; diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure recorded just prior to the next contraction

.How is root pressure generated in xylem vessels by active transport of mineral ions(4pts)

The Pump proteins that carry out active transport are in the plasma membrane of these living cells. The xylem vessels are dead and do not have plasma membranes. Active transport makes the xylem sap hypertonic compared with the cytoplasms of the adjacent cells, so water moves from the xylem vessels by osmosis. This raises the pressure inside the vessels and pushes the sap upwards, against the force of gravity.

Adaptations of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells for translocation of sap(write this down for the answer:

sieve plates, reduced cytoplasm and organelles, no nucleus for sieve tube elements and presence of many mitochondria for companion cells and plasmodesmata between them. These adaptations ease the flow of sap and enhance loading of carbon compounds into phloem sieve tubes at sources and unloading of them at sinks

Outline the steps to the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

1. Myosin filaments have heads which form cross bridges when they are attached to binding sites on actin filaments

2. ATP bands to they myosin heads and causes them to break the cross-bridges by detaching from the binding sites

3. ATP is hydrolysis to ADP and phosphate, causing the myosin heads to change their angle. The heads are said to be "cocked" in their new position as they are storing potential energy from ATP

4. The heads attach to binding sites on actin that are further from the center of the sarcomere than the previous sites

5. The ADP and phosphate are released and the heads push the actin filament inwards the centre of the a sacromere- this is called the power stroke

What is the Role of the protein titin in muscle contraction. Why are antagonistic muscles needed in relaxation

- protein titin helps sarcomeres to recoil after stretching and also prevents overstretching

- needed because muscle tissue can only exert force when it contracts

What is the Structure and function of motor units in skeletal muscle

A motor unit in skeletal muscle is a functional unit composed of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates, connected by specialized junctions called neuromuscular junctions, allowing the motor neuron to trigger muscle contraction by sending electrical signals to the muscle fibers; essentially, a motor unit is the basic unit responsible for generating muscle force by activating a group of muscle fibers simultaneously

Skeleton are used for anchorage of muscles. What type do arthropods have? Vertebrates?(

Arthropods - exoskeleton

Vertebrates - endoskeletons

Outline the movement of the synovial joint using hip as an example(Include the roles of bones, cartilage, synovial fluid, ligaments, muscles and tendons. )

Synovial joints - joints with a large range of movements, EX rotational

- Bones provide an anchorage for muscles and ligaments.by their shape, bones guide the types of movement that can occur at a joint

- cartilage helps to prevent friction by preventing contact between regions of bone that might otherwise rub together. It also absorbs shocks that might cause bones to fracture

- synovial fluid. It lubricates the joint, helping to prevent the friction that would occur if the cartilages were dry and touching

- Ligaments prevent aberrant movements that would disolicare or damage the joints.

muscles provide the forces that cause movement at a joint

- tendons attach muscle to bone.

What is the range of motion of a joint

The structure of a joint determines the range of movements that are possible of a joint . How a joint can move

.Outline how the internal and external intercostal muscle are antagonistic in ventilation

when one set contracts to elevate the ribs and facilitate inhalation (external intercostals), the other set relaxes, and when the first set relaxes, the second set (internal intercostals) contracts to depress the ribs and aid in exhalation, essentially working in opposite directions to control the movement of the rib cage during breathing

Give 4 reasons for locomotion

Foraging for food

Escaping from danger

to search for a mate

migration

Give 3 Adaptations for swimming in marine mammals and explain each

streamlining : marine males are shaped to minimize resistance to motion by these features

- Shaped to be widest near the front and tapering towards the rear, which causes less drag than other shapes

- skin without hair, reducing fiction

Adaptations for locomotion

- flippers , used for steering

- Dorsal fin to provide stability by preventinging rolling

- Airways to allow ventilation of the lungs

No connections between the mouth and lungs to present water from entering the lungs

- blowhole , in their head

What is a habitat?

the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism.

Define the following Habitat, community, species, population

- Habitat: A specific place where a particular organisms live, meeting their specific needs

- Community A group of different populations of species living in the same area and interact

- Species A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

- Population A group of individuals in the same species that live in the same area

What Adaptations of organisms to the abiotic environment of their habitat(include grass adapting to sand dunes and trees to mangrove swamps

- All organisms adapt to the abiotic environment, especially in extreme habitats such as sand dunes and mangrove swamps

- ex lyme grass adapted to sand dunes by having thick waxy cuticle which reduces transpiration and leaves that can roll up during droughts reducing surface area exposed to wind

- EX: trees adapted to mangrove swamps by secreting excess salt from salt glands in the leaf (as high salt water) and large buoyant seed

What are some ways Abiotic variables affecting species distribution(include both plants and animals and tolerance)(4)

Abiotic variables can affect plant species distribution

- Temperature, water availability, light intensity, soil Ph , soil salinity all limit a plants growth, certain plants can only live in a certain range of tolerances affecting their distribution

- Plants in northern areas have adaptation where they have chemicals that act like antifreeze but no adaptations for growth in tropics

Abiotic variables can affect animal species distribution

- Water availability and temperature, extremes of temperatures create new adaptations forcing certain animals to stay in certain areas

- Ex polar bears have small eras to minimize heat loss, but elephants have large ears to maximize heat loss

- Animals may need certain requirements in certain aspects in life cycle

- Salmon require fast flowing freshwater no more than 3m deep for spawning

.What is a transect line? What does it measure

straight line laid across a habitat, used to measure the distribution and abundance of organisms along a gradient , could be used to find correlations between distribution of species and abiotic variables

What are 5 Conditions required for coral reef formation

- can provide other reasoning if wanted

Depth- less than 50 m depth of water, so enough light penetrates

pH - above 7.8, to allow deposition of calcium carbonate in the skeleton

Salinity - between 32 and 42 parts per thousand, to avoid osmotic problems

Clarity - turbidity would prevent penetration of light so the water must be clear

Temperature - 23-29C so both the coral and its zooxanthellae remain healthy

How do Abiotic factors determine terrestrial biome distribution(use rainfall and temperature)

- Through a variety of factors but primary rainfall and temperature

- Ecosystems can be found by distinct combinations of the temperature and rainfall, which can be shown in graphs

What is a biome

Biomes are groups of ecosystems that resemble each other even though they are separated across the world,

What are the climate conditions that characterize the tropical forest, temperate forest, taiga, grassland, tundra and hot desert biomes.

Tropical forest - high temp/ high precipitation/ high light intesity/ minimial seasonal variation in rainforest

Temperate forest - mid temp/ high&mid precipitation/ mid light intesity/ Warm summers colder winters

taiga - low temp/ very low precipitation/ mid&low light intesity/ Short summers; long cold winters

Hot desert - high temp/ very low precipitation/ high light intesity/ Minimal seasonal variation

grassland - high&mid temp/ mid precipitation / high&mid light intesity/ Variation with a dry season or cold season

tundra - very low temp/ mid& low precipitation/ low light intesity/ Very short summer; very cold winter

What is an example of how plants and animals have adapted to hot deserts and tropical rainforest?

Hot deserts

- Saguro cactus, a thick waxy utcile on the stem epidermis to reduce trasnpiration

- Fennec fox, nocturnal to avoid hot temperatures in day

Tropical rainforest

- Meranti (tree), grows very high to avoid competition for light

- Spider monkey , long arms for climbing and reaching for fruit

What is a niche?

The role an organism plays in a community

What are 3 elements(abiotic/biotic) that niche's have?(4)

- zones of tolerance for abiotic variables determine the habitat of a species

- food is obtained either by synthesis using light, water and carbon dioxide or by taking it in from other organisms. To minimize competition, species must specialize. To complete effectively, they must develop adaptations for the mode of nutrition that is their specialism

- other species are utilized to provide a diverse range of services - for example, the supply of mineral elements by recycling, pollination of flowers or dispersal of seeds; the support provided by the trunks and branches of trees

Differences between organisms that are obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes and obligate aerobes

Obligate aerobes.

- require a continuous oxygen supply so only live oxide environments

obligate anaerobes

- inhibited or killed by oxygen so only live in anoxic environments

facultative anaerobes

- use oxygen if available so live in oxide or anoxic environments

Photosynthesis is the mode of nutrition for what type of organisms

plants

eukaryotic algae

several groups of bacteria

What is Holozoic nutrition in animals

The whole pieces of food are swallowed then fully digested. humans eat

What is a mixotrophic organism? Give an example

Mixotrophic organisms derive nourishment from both autotrophic and Heterotrophic mechanisms.

- Euglena gracilis

What is an obligate mixotroph

Must use both heterotrophic and autotrophic in order to grow

What is a saprotroph and what are 2 types of organisms are saprotrophs

discrete digestive enzymes into the dead organic matter and digest it externally

- Fungi and certain bacteria

What are 3 modes of nutrition in the domain Archaea

- phototrophic : aspiration of light energy by pigments

- chemotrophic : oxidation of inorganic chemicals

- heterotrophic : Oxidation of carbon compounds from other organisms

What is the Relationship between dentition and the diet of omnivorous and herbivorous representative members of the family Hominidae

omnivorous members like humans have teeth with a combination of sharp canines for biting and flat molars for grinding, allowing them to eat both plant and animas , while herbivorous members typically have larger, flatter molars with complex ridges specifically designed for grinding tough plant material, reflecting their primarily plant-based die

- Basically what we eat causes teeth to evolve to it.

What are Adaptations of herbivores for feeding on plants(2)

beetles and other insects with jaw - like mouthparts for biting off, chewing and ingesting pieces of lead

aphids and other insect with tubular mouthparts for piercing leaves or stems to reach problem sieve tubes and feed on the sap

9.What are Adaptations of plants for resisting herbivory(3)

Some plants have tough sharp pointed spines

many plants synthesize substances that are toxic to herbivore

may have stings to cause pain

What are Adaptations of predators for finding, catching and killing prey and of prey animals for resisting predation

Physical

- predators

-sharp teeth

- prey

- camouflage

chemical

- predator

- Posionous fangs

- prey

-toxic to warn predators

Behavior

- predator

-Strategize when to catch migrating prey

- prey

- schooling

What are Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light in the forest

- trees have a dominant leading shoot that grows rapidly to great height to reach the forest canopy where they are unshaded by other trees

- lianas climb through other trees, using them for support. This means lianas do not need to produce as much xylem tissue (wood) as free-standing trees

- epiphytes grow iN the trunks and branches of trees, so they receive higher light intensity than if they grew on forest floor, but there is minimal soil for their roots

- strangler epiphytes climb up the trunks of trees encircling them and outgrowing their branches, to shade out the leaves of the tree. Eventually the tree dies leaving only the epiphyte

- shade -tolerant shrubs and herbs absorbs light reaching the forest floor

What is the difference between a realized and fundamental niche

The fundamental niche refers to the ideal conditions under which a species can thrive. By contrast, the realized niche refers to the actual niche occupied by a species in the real world

What is the competitive exclusion principle

says that two species cannot occupy the same niche in a habitat

Andre made it

NOT John burger