Rights and Protests: Civil Rights Movement

Charles Hamilton Houston

Initial NAACP litigation director who suggested to implement the Margold strategy in pieces. His suggestion reflected how he knew that desegregation could only be implemented one step at a time.

Margold Report

A report written for the NAACP by Nathan Ross Margold in 1930 which proposed to attack the doctrine of “separate but equal” in court by challenging the inherent inequality of segregation in schools. This became the bias of the NAACP’s approach to ending segregation, but the NAACP decided to take a more gradual approach to desegregation.

15th Amendment

Amendment that granted African Americans men the right to vote.

Murray v. Maryland

1935 - Donald Murray was rejected from the University of Maryland School of Law because of his color. He was told to apply to a junior college instead. The Maryland State Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision to force UMD to let him in. This case only applies to MD which means that desegregation was going to be a continuous battle in many states.

Gaines v Missouri

1938 - Missouri Law School would not admit African Americans but would pay any tuition difference if they attended a law school in another state. US Supreme Court rules that separate facilities had to be equal within a state but this does not comment on segregated facilities themselves.

Thurgood Marshall

He was the counsel for NAACP. He was the lawyer on the Brown v Board Education case. Because of his counsel, the Supreme Court rules to end racial segregation in public schools. He later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

1963 Birmingham Church Bombing

Four schoolgirls were killed; the church had been a place of significant civil rights rallies and meetings so it drew the attention of the white community.

Atlanta GA Riot

Four African American men were accused of assaulting white women in 1906 in GA; thousands of white men rioted by destroying businesses and African American men armed themselves in response to the riot — 250 African Americans are arrested and 25-40 died.

Rosa Park

Member of NAACP and worked as their secretary; played huge part in Civil Rights Movement. She recorded meetings and kept the group organized. She is more famously known for her refusal to give up her seat on the bus.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

The purpose of this letter is to defend and justify the nonviolent direct actions, such as sit-ins and marches, taken by members of the black community in resistance to racial segregation and oppression.

SCLC

Known as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. It was made up of mostly Christian ministers and church leaders. They trained thousands of activists in the philosophy of Christian non-violent resistance. Its biggest strength was as a coordinating organization, which would word to train others to lead the struggle. Its influenced waned with the assassination of Dr. King, which coincided with the rise in the black power movement.

Beloved Community

This term was popularized by MLK. It came from the idea of love and commitment to nonviolence. It would not tolerate any form of discrimination, poverty, hunger or homelessness. It believed that disputes should be resolved through the process of conflict resolution with the dual goals of peace and justice

Civil Rights Act 1964

Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Malcom X

Originally sided with Nation of Islam and preached their values, in the end left Islam and then was assassinated.

James Meredith

1st African American to attend Ole Miss University. This was significant because he was one of the first students to be a part of the integration plan that was instituted after the ruling by the Supreme Court in the Brown vs. Board of Education case

“All deliberate speed”

This was the wording used by the Supreme Court in the Brown vs. Board of Education case in regards to how states should go about integrating their segregated schools. This was very significant because its vague wording allowed states such as Virginia to take different interpretations of the rulings and thus resist the ruling of the court without directly disobeying the ruling.

Voter Rights Act of 1965

This act aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote under the 15th Amendment. It outlawed literacy tests, outlawed poll taxes, and gave power to assign federal examiners to observe and direct voter registration, where less than half of the eligible residents were registered to vote. It also stated that jurisdictions with such a history "could not implement any change affecting voting until the Attorney General or the Unites States District Court for the District of Columbia determined that the change did not have discriminatory purpose and would not have a discriminatory effect."

Margold Strategy

The Report, written in 1930, proposed to attack the doctrine of separate but equal by challenging the system of primary and secondary public schools. It was an accepted proposal and many wanted to follow along with this plan, and the NAACP seems to be following the plan as they tried to fight against segregation through the court. The plan was later altered to be smaller cases in local areas against schools and slowly leading to nationwide segregation of schools.

NAACP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Founded in 1909 by W.E.B DuBois and others following a race riot in Springfield Illinois in 1908. The purpose was "to secure for all people the rights guaranteed in the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the United States Constitution, which promise an end to slavery, the equal protection of the law, and universal adult male suffrage". Fought against segregation in favor of the betterment of society. They used the court strategy outlined in the Margold Report to gradually take down segregation.

CORE

Congress of Racial Equality-one of the leading activist organizations in the early years of the American Civil Rights Movement. In the early 1960s, ______, working with other civil rights groups, launched a series of initiatives: the Freedom Rides, aimed at desegregating public facilities, the Freedom Summer voter registration project and the historic 1963 March on Washington. ______initially embraced a pacifist, non-violent approach to fighting racial segregation, but by the late 1960s the group's leadership had shifted its focus towards the political ideology of black nationalism and separatism. ______directed the Freedom Rides.

13th Amendment

Abolished Slavery; this is significant because it took down the one barrier that would then allow the rest of the barriers to come down.

Ernest Green

Ernest Green was the first of the Little Rock Nine to graduate from Central High School. He was the first to integrate, and became a symbol for success in the face of oppression.

Harry Truman

Established the President's Committee on Civil Rights, which pushed for Southern anti-lynching laws and aided with increased black voter registration. Though it did not have a major impact on legislation, it was an effort to address the issues through the law.

Lyndon B. Johnson

Civil Rights Act of 1964, was the president to pass the majority of civil rights legislation. He also launched the Fair Housing Act, which banned discriminatory practices in the sale and rental of homes and apartments. It was signed a week after MLK's assassination. He was from Texas, and was an example of a sympathetic southern politician.

Failure in Albany

In Georgia in 1961-1962, a massive boycott attempt was launched by civil rights activists. The police, for real this time, protected protesters and treated them with respect. It was entirely non-violent, but the protest does not gain attention, and does not have a large impact.

Women’s Political Council

The Women's Political Council was an organization that fought for rights for African Americans. Before the Montgomery Bus Boycott, they met with local officials in the hopes of ending the discriminatory practices of the bus system. The women involved also helped to coordinate and provide rides for the workers during the boycotts. They were the backbone of the successful boycott.

Brown v. Board of Education

Five Court Cases that worked in succession and became collectively known as __________. Made school segregation illegal in 1954. Established that "separate but equal" was unconstitutional. It paved the way for the continuation of the civil rights movement and for equality under the law. While the Court Case called for the end of segregation, it also called for schools to be desegregated with "all deliberate speed", which was a mistake. Earl Warren oversaw this case.

KKK

Founded by 6 former confederates, including Nathan Bedford Forrest. It began as a secret Vigilante Group with members dressed as the ghosts of dead Confederates to intimidate Freedmen. It was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political but in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party's infrastructure -- The Klan changed, and there were three eras. The first focused on lynchings and terrorizing African Americans. The second focused on intimidating Catholics and Jews. The third focused on motivated African Americans and their movements, which were beginning to take hold.

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 Landmark constitutional law case of the Supreme Court that was a reaction to the refusal of an African American train passenger refused to sit in a Jim Crow car, which broke Louisiana Law. It upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities under the idea of "separate but equal". Separate but equal was not truly equal, and allowed for a lot of manipulation of the law and continued mistreatment of African Americans. Inspired backlash. It legally allows segregation.

McLaurin v Oklahoma State Regents

1950 court case. Oklahoma State did not have a separate law school, but it segregated facilities within schools. US Supreme Court tackles this too. Again, these are all significant because they take a bite out of discrimination in education. Thurgood Marshall won this case, so segregated facilities within schools, such as classroom seats and libraries, were illegal. -- year

JFK

During first two years of Presidency, Kennedy proposed no civil rights legislation. White House is tied up with foreign relations, defense and economic issues
On June 11, 1963, Kennedy goes on television to propose a comprehensive bill covering discrimination in public accommodations and employment, as well as strengthening voting rights enforcement mechanisms -- In response to the Freedom Rides, Kennedy allowed Mississippi government to arrest riders, but also pushed for an end in segregation on interstate bus lines.

Senator Harry F. Byrd

Was a Virginia Senator who, among others, started the movement of Massive Resistance in opposition to desegregation in schools. He coordinated the closing of public schools in Virginia, resulting in education being limited to private schools that only whites could afford. This movement and his efforts showed that the state governments still had power to oppose federal law and continue discrimination against African Americans.

Fannie Lou Hamer

A member of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party who gave speeches at the 1964 Democratic Convention convention, spreading awareness of what was happening in Mississippi. She played a major role in organizing the Freedom Summer and SNCC.

Sweatt v Painter

Heman Sweatt, a black man, applied to the white University of Texas school of law, which had created an inferior second school for blacks in an attempt to create a separate but equal facility, and was denied for his color. Sweatt refused the offer of enrollment made by the separate school. In 1950 the US Supreme Court ruled that a legal education (graduate-level) was more than just equal facilities because interactions with others and the reputation of the school mattered in starting a legal career. A separate facility could never be equal.

Southern Manifesto

Formally known as the Declaration of Constitutional Principles, the document was written in 1956 and signed by 101 politicians. It was initially drafted in opposition to the racial integration of public places. Specifically the document was drafted to counter the Supreme Court ruling in the Brown Vs. Board of education case. The document displayed the opposition to integration felt by government officials and displayed the separation in views and ideals of much of America to integration.

Little Rock 9

The first African Americans to publicly integrate into a non-segregated high school in Arkansas. This event led to mass rioting of whites in the town and the government had to step in to enforce the supreme court decision of allowing integration. Governor Faubus used the National Guard to ban the students. To uphold the Constitution yet prevent a bloody confrontation, Eisenhower met with governor Faubus and convinced him to allow the integration of the students and use his national guard troops to restore order.

Watts Riots

A series of riots which took place in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles from August 11 to 16th in 1965. The riots started in response to police brutality allegations and caused mass amounts of property damage and looting. The California Army National Guard had to be deployed to stop the riots.

Freedom Summer

Targeted political power, specifically voting rights and political representation. In Mississippi, the KKK infiltrated all levels of society: membership includes government officials, businessmen, police, and Parchman Prison employees. SNCC member Robert Moses comes to the state to encourage voter registration in 1961. They got 500.000 blacks registered. The Freedom Summer gains 41 freedom schools, 17,000 register, 1,600 are accepted.

Freedom Schools

These schools worked towards resolving the issues of combining voter education, voter registration and political activism. It aimed to teach literacy and civics to both adults and children. It was a fully integrated project, including middle and upper class white students to help with education efforts. The idea for these schools was created in late 1963, largely in response to the Brown versus Board of Education decision, and they were established by the SNCC beginning in 1964 throughout Mississippi.

SNCC: Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee

was led by John Lewis and Diane Nash. They organized the second Freedom ride trip. Participants in SNCC wrote their last will and testaments before embarking on the trip as they did not know what the future would hold. Kennedy recommended that they do not embark on this trip as it will most likely lead to death.

Jo Ann Robinson

She was an English Teacher at Alabama State College. She led the Women's Political Council in discussions regarding bus segregations with Montgomery Officials.She lead the bus boycott that gained national attention and the support of MLKJ

March on Washington

This was a large protest in which approximately 250,000 people marched on the capital to protest for civil rights in 1963. This was significant because it brought the issue of civil rights to the national stage in a major way. This was where Martin Luther King Jr. gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

W.E.B Du Bois

Founder of the NAACP in 1909. He wanted to abolish racism and opposed lynchings, Jim Crow Laws, and discrimination in southern education and employment. He wrote many books to defend blacks throughout his life, many coming in the 1930's.

Bob Moses

Leader of SNCC that focused on voter registration and minority education. He was the first black to challenge white violence. Also served as the Co-Director of COFO, an organization for civil rights groups in Mississippi. Adopted a desegregation strategy that resembled MLKJ's.

MLK Jr.

Emerged as a major leader of the Montgomery black community. He was a new pastor in town and was assigned with organizing the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and was a leader in the SCLC. He also spoke at the March on Washington and many other places. He focused on non-violent protest. He was murdered in Tennessee whilst on his balcony looking around at the supporters. His ideas continued to inspire those after his death. The loss of MLK was felt by all races.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

December 5, 1955; Began after Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a public bus to a white passenger; considered the first large civil rights protest against segregation; Organized by the Women's Political Council and Martin Luther King Jr. who then became a significant protest leader in the civil rights movement; African American citizens stopped riding city buses to protest against separate seating on buses; the boycott ended after the courts made buses integrated both races.

Tulsa Race Riot

Riot that occurred in 1921. The riot was triggered when an African American man accused of raping a white woman. The riot resulted in the death of more than 300 African Americans and more than 6000 were detained and arrested. This resulted in increased division between white and blacks and catalyzed growing animosity between the two races